IRLF 


SB    3D? 


GIFT  ©F 
Prof .    E , J • to  i  c kso  n 


MAIN 


MARKET  GARDENING 


AND 


FARM  NOTES 


Experiences  and  Observations 

IN  THE    GARDEN  AND  FIELD,  OF  INTEREST   TO  THE 

AMATEUR  GARDENER,  TRUCKER 
AND  FARMER 


BY 

BUKKTET  LAJSTDEETH 

Chief  Bureau  of  Agriculture  Centennial  Inter-National  Exhibition, 
Officier  du  Merite  Agricole  de  France. 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE   JUDD    COMPANY 
1893 


COPYRIGHT,  1892, 
BY  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Page. 
Market  Gardening 1 

CHAPTER  IL 
Location  and  Soils 17 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Science  of  Gardening 22 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Chemistry  of  the  Garden 30 

CHAPTER  V, 
Stable  Manure,  Compost  and  Commercial  Fertilizers 35 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Sowing  Seeds 41 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Germination 44 

CHAPTER  VIIL 
Transplanting 61 

CHAPTER  IX. 

• 

Succession,  or  the  Rotation  of  Crops 64 

CHAPTER  X. 
Garden  Insects 57 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Diseases  of  Garden  Vegetable 65 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Heredity  in  Plants 69 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Saving  Seed 73 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Seedsmen's  Novelties  and  Responsibilities 78 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Weeds 82 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames 84 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Market  Gardening  Under  Glass 94 

CHAPTER  XVHI. 

Celery 113 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Onion  Culture 125 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Mushroom  Culture 135 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Roots  for  Stock  Feeding 140 

CHAPTER  XXH. 

Packing  and  Shipping  Vegetables 164 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Implements  for  the  Farm  and  Garden ...  169 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

A  Half -Acre  Garden 182 

CHAPTER  XXV.  • 
Calendar   Indicating    Operations    for   the    Northern  and 

Southern  States 185 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

The  Grass  Question. 198 

Index .  214 


MARKET     GARDENING. 


CHAPTER  I. 
MAKKET  GARDENING. 

Though  this  volume  is  written  for  the  amateur, 
or  family  gardener,  indeed,  to  be  more  precise,  for  the 
novice  in  gardening,  it  may,  however,  fall  into  the  hands  of 
more  experienced  persons,  inclined  to  make  a  venture  in 
gardening  for  profit,  and,  accordingly,  it  may  not  be 
out  of  place  to  make  some  remarks  upon  subjects  con- 
nected with  growing  vegetables  for  sale.  The  last 
United  States  Census  Bureau  has  issued  a  bulletin  on 
Truck  Farming,  from  which  the  writer  makes  the  fol- 
lowing extracts.  Upward  of  $100,000,000  is  invested 
in  this  industry,  the  annual  products  reaching  a  value  of 
$75,000,000,  the  product  of  534,440  acres  of  land. 

The  annual  expenditures  for  fertilizers  being $10,000,000 

The  cost  of  seeds  used  amounting  to $1 ,420,633 

The  number  of  men  employed  being 216,765 

The  number  of  women  employed  being 9,254 

The  number  of  children  employed  being 14,874 

The  number  of  horses  and  mules  employed  being 75,800 

The  value  of  the  implements  used  being $8,971,000 

For  convenience  of  tabulation  the  States  are  divided 
into  districts.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  num- 
ber of  acres  under  cultivation  for  truck  farming  pur- 

1 


GAEDENING. 


poses,  and  the  value  of  products  raised,  given  by  dis- 
tricts, is  as  follows : 


Districts. 

Acres. 

Value  of 
products. 

New  England      ...             .... 

6,838 

$3  184  218 

Philadelphia 

108  135 

21  102  521 

Peninsular  

25,714 

2,413,648 

Norfolk 

45  375 

4  692  859 

Baltimore  

37,181 

3,784,696 

South  Atlantic             .                              ... 

111,441 

13  183  516 

Mississippi  Valley  

36,180 

4,982,579 

Southwest  

36,889 

4  979  783 

Central 

107  414 

15  43'-*  223 

Northwest  

1,083 

204,791 

3  833 

531  976 

Pacific  Coast  

14,357 

2,024,345 

534,440 

§76,517,155 

In  the  Philadelphia  district,  which  includes  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey  and  New  York,  there  are  employed 
69,000  men  at  an  average  cost  for  daily  wages  of  $1.19  ; 
the  annual  production  being  of  the  value  of  $21,000,000. 

The  next  district  of  importance,  extending  over 
the  State  of  Ohio  as  far  as  Wisconsin,  is  known  as  the 
Central,  wherein  are  employed  34,000  men,  at  an  aver- 
age wages  cost  of  $1.16  per  day,  and  producing  an  an- 
-nual  valuation  of  $15,500,000. 

The  South  Atlantic  district  is  the  third  in  import- 
ance, having  an  output  of  $13,000,000  and  employing 
31,000  men,  women  and  children  at  an  average  daily 
wages  of  eighty-five  cents. 

As  an  example  of  the  market  gardening  output  at 
Norfolk,  Va.,  it  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  extent  of 
some  of  the  shipments  made  from  that  city  in  one  year. 

Cabbage 347,000  barrels. 

Kale 178,000 

Onions 4,800 

Radishes 4,200 

Irish  potatoes 325,000 

Sweet  potatoes 255,000 

Spinach 123,000 

Beans 80,000    boxes. 

Cucumbers 46,000 

Tomatoes 350,000 


MARKET   GARDENING.  3 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  shipped  from 
the  same  city  almost  1,000,000  watermelons.  And  yet 
it  was  considered  a  poor  year. 

From  the  city  of  Mobile,  in  the  next  yeas,  the 
shipments  were : 

Crates  of  cabbage 58,309 

Boxes  of  beans 46,178 

Boxes  of  peas 1,278 

Boxes  of  tomatoes 2,695 

Barrels  of  potatoes 78,924 

Other  market  garden  products $458,000 

The  Philadelphia  district,  the  Central  district,  and 
the  South  Atlantic  district  are  only  three  of  twelve  dis- 
tricts as  laid  out  by  the  Census  Bureau,  that  of  Califor- 
nia giving  an  annual  production  of  over  $4,000,000,  and 
yet  there  is  room  for  the  productions  of  all,  amounting 
to  $76,000,000,  and  no  doubt  in  a  few  years  that  sum 
will  be  doubled,  for  everything  soon  doubles  in  this  land 
of  phenomenal  progress. 

The  unprecedented  development  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Gulf  States  of  the  business  of  growing  vegetables 
for  autumn  and  winter  shipment  to  the  cities  of  the 
North,  to  be  from  those  active  centers  more  widely  dis- 
tributed among  the  densely  populated  districts  of  ,the 
Middle,  Western  and  New  England  States,  has  been  one 
of  the  surprises  in  modern  agriculture. 

Formerly  esculent  vegetables  could  be  divided  into 
classes,  and  a  period  named  covering  the  time  of  sale  of 
each  class — as,  for  example,  peas  were  only  offered  dur- 
ing May,  June  and  July,  and  so  with  cucumbers,  toma- 
toes, egg  plants  and  beans,  they  all  had  their  seasons, 
and,  when  they  were  past,  only  those  people  who^-had 
greenhouses  could  expect  more  until  the  return  of  the 
corresponding  season  the  following  year,  but  now  that  is 
a  condition  of  the  past,  for  Georgia  and  Florida,  with 
their  evergreen  productiveness,  have  been  able  to  revolu- 
tionize the  old  conditions,  by  sending  to  the  northern 


4  MARKET  GARDEHING. 

cities,  even  when  snow  clad  and  ice  bound,  the  fruits  of 
balmy  summer. 

From  such  a  perennial  field  there  are  now  offered, 
at  all  times,  vegetables  which  at  first  surprised  the  ob- 
servers and  were  only  used  by  epicures,  but  which  now 
have  become  a  necessity,  not  only  on  the  table  of  the 
rich  and  well-to-do,  but  of  every  hotel  and  restaurant. 

Thus,  thanks  especially  to  Florida,  the  general  pub- 
lic of  the  whole  country  have  luxuries  at  their  command 
which  their  ancestors  never  even  hoped  to  obtain,  and 
the  now  familiar  products  of  Florida  have  brought  that 
State  more  prominently  to  the  notice  of  the  Northern 
people  than  has  the  wheat  and  corn  of  any  Western 
State  made  its  name  known,  for  grain  products  do  not 
carry  with  them  their  own  identifications  as  do  cucum- 
bers in  March,  egg  plants  in  December  and  January, 
tomatoes  from  January  to  March,  cauliflower  in  March 
and  April. 

The  value  of  the  output  of  winter  vegetables  from 
Georgia  and  Florida,  and  the  value  of  the  quantity  con- 
sumed by  the  winter  guests  of  the  hotels,  tips  the  scale 
at  a  valuation  of  several  millions  of  dollars,  a  large  sum 
considering  that  the  cultivation  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  for 
the  production  of  vegetables,  in  Florida  especially,  is 
certain  to  develop  to  an  immense  degree,  as  no  competi- 
tion can  come  from  a  more  southern  district.  The 
profits  of  the  Norfolk  truckers  were  cut  by  the  Charles- 
ton and  Savannah  market  gardeners,  and  they,  in  turn, 
by  the  Florida  cultivators,  but  the  Gulf  is  south  of 
Florida,  so  competition  stops,  or  becomes  merely  inter- 
state, there  being  no  neighbors  southwardly  to  compete 
with  earlier  productions. 

Market  gardening  may  be  termed  commercial  gar- 
dening, as  the  operator  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  a 
merchant,  fully  alive  to  the  import  of  fluctuating  prices, 
and  quick  to  change  his  point  of  shipment  or  his 
consignee. 


MABKET  GARDENING.  5 

The  market  gardener,  filling  a  multiform  position 
as  a  cultivator  of  the  soil  to  an  intense  degree,  as  a  care- 
ful packer  of  products  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  his 
goods  attractive  and  saleable,  as  a  shipper  and  a  close 
reader  of  market  intelligence,  must  have  the  best  agri- 
cultural appliances  and  commercial  aids,  none  of  which 
can  be  procured  without  money,  consequently  the  sub- 
ject of  capital  is  one  of  considerable  importance. 

Capital. — The  capital  of  a  market  gardener  should 
be  estimated  by  his  available  cash,  compared  with  the 
number  of  his  acres,  and,  as,  in  other  things,  opinions 
vary,  so  do  the  estimates  of  practical  gardeners,  some 
being  satisfied  to  live  on  inexpensive  land  far  removed 
from  market,  and  use  what  others  would  term  an  incom- 
plete line  of  implements,  and  be  satisfied  with  what 
nature  develops  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  their  busi- 
ness, while  others,  more  progressive,  locate  in  the  out- 
skirts of  great  cities,  consequently  upon  high-priced 
land,  and  have  everything  new  in  the  way  of  labor-saving 
appliances. 

The  first  class  of  gardeners  may  be  termed  experi- 
mental farmers,  men  tired  of  the  humdrum  rotation  of 
farm  processes  and  small  profits,  men  looking  for  a  pay- 
ing diversification  of  their  agricultural  interests.  Their 
expenses  for  appliances  are  not  great,  as  they  have 
already  on  hand  the  usual  stock  of  farm  tools,  requiring 
only  one  or  two  seed  drills,  a  small  addition  to  their  cul- 
tivating implements,  and  a  few  tons  of  fertilizers. 
Their  laborers  and  teams  are  always  on  hand  for  the 
working  of  moderate  areas.  In  addition  to  their  usual 
expenses  of  the  farm,  they  would  not  need  to  have 
a  cash  capital  of  beyond  twenty  to  twenty-five  dollars 
per  acre  for  the  area  in  truck.  Other  men,  in  ordinary 
farming  districts,  purchasing  or  renting  land,  especially 
for  market  gardening,  taking  only  improved  land  of 
suitable  aspect,  soil  and  situation,  and  counting  in  cost 


6  MARKET   GARDEIUKG. 

of  building,  appliances  and  labor,  would  require  a  cash 
capital  of  eighty  to  one  hundred  dollar^  per  acre.  For 
example,  a  beginner  in  market  gardening  in  South  Jersey, 
on  a  five-acre  patch,  would  need  five  hundred  dollars  to 
set  up  the  business  and  run  it  until  his  shipments  began 
to  return  him  money.  With  the  purpose  of  securing 
information  on  this  interesting  point,  the  writer  asked 
for  estimates  from  market  gardeners  in  different  locali- 
ties, and  the  result  has  been  that  from  Florida  the  reports 
of  the  necessary  capital  per  acre  in  land  or  its  rental  (not 
of  labor),  fertilizers,  tools,  implements,  seed  and  all  the 
appliances,  average  ninety-five  dollars,  from  Texas  forty- 
five,  from  Illinois  seventy  dollars ;  from  the  Norfolk  dis- 
trict of  Virginia  the  reports  vary  from  seventy-five  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  according  to  loca- 
tion, and  from  Long  Island,  New  York,  the  average  of 
estimates  at  the  east  end  are  seventy-five,  and,  at  the  west 
end,  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 

Market  gardeners,  living  ten  miles  out  of  Philadel- 
phia, on  tracts  of  twenty  and  thirty  acres,  devoting  all 
their  land  and  energies  to  growing  vegetables,  sometimes 
paying  forty  dollars  per  acre  for  rent,  estimate  that  the 
necessary  capital  averages  from  two  hundred  to  three 
hundred  dollars  per  acre,  according  to  the  amount  of 
truck  grown  in  hotbeds.  These  same  men  calculate  the 
profits  to  be  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 

Very  different  is  the  case  on  the  immediate  outskirts 
of  Philadelphia,  and  other  large  cities,  with  the  five  and 
ten  acre  gardeners,  employing  several  men  to  the  acre, 
sometimes  a  larger  force,  where  high  rents,  high  wages, 
intense  manuring  and  expensive  forcing-houses  combine 
to  swell  the  expenses  to  an  astonishing  degree,  often  over 
six  or  seven  hundred  dollars  per  acre  being  absorbed  the 
first  year,  and  without  which  ready  capital  at  command 
the  suburban  cultivator  would  be  driven  to  the  wall 


MAEKET  GARDENING.  7 

before  the  close  of  the  first  season,  as  he  works  under  heavy 
expenses,  and  he  must  have  ready  cash  to  meet  them,  es- 
pecially if  the  first  season  be  an  unprofitable  one.  Of 
course,  the  six  or  seven  hundred  dollars  per  acre  which 
may  be  expended  the  first  year  by  a  gardener  having  forc- 
ing houses,  with  all  the  entailed  expenses,  need  not  be 
repeated  the  second,  not  more  than  one-half  of  it,  and, 
indeed,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  reduce  expenses,  as 
the  profit  in  trucking  would  not  warrant  such  an  annual 
cash  outlay ;  but  what  would  be  thought  of  an  annual 
rental  of  six  hundred  dollars  per  acre,  which  is  the  rate 
charged  for  a  market  garden  which  the  writer  visited  in 
the  outskirts  of  Paris,  France. 

Location. — Alluvial  soils  with  gravel  subsoil  are 
best  for  garden  vegetables,  but  one  finds  many  excep- 
tions, as  nearly  pure  clays,  on  the  one  hand,  and  white, 
apparently  inert,  sands,  on  the  other,  have  been  made  to 
yield  a  satisfactory  return  for  labor  and  time  put  upon 
them.  Of  course,  a  light  soil  means  early  crops,  and  a 
clay  soil  later  ones.  It  may  be  said  that  in  the  South 
early  crops  always  pay  the  best,  but  in  the  North  late 
crops  are  often  the  most  profitable,  as  they  come  in  after 
the  market  has  ceased  to  be  glutted.  Location  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  as,  evidently,  it  would  be  idle  to 
expect  success  where  the  means  of  regular  and  prompt 
shipment  to  market  are  not  within  reach,  hence  location 
may  be  looked  upon  as  an  indispensable  preliminary. 
But  it  is  not  all,  for  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  an  even 
more  important  one,  as  without  a  soil,  productive  nat- 
urally, or  with  artificial  stimulation,  it  matters  little 
what  the  transportation  facilities  may  be. 

Transportation. — From  many  communications 
which  the  writer  has  received,  he  gathers  that  the  in- 
quirers imagine,  because  they  are  on  a  railroad  a  few 
hours  or  a  hundred  miles  or  so  from  a  shipping  point, 
that  they  are  well  placed  for  market  gardening.  This 


8  MARKET  GARDENING. 

is  a  grave  mistake.  True  the  railroad  car  or  the  steamer 
which  is  to  receive  articles  so  perishable  as  fruit  and 
garden  vegetables  for  transportation,  should  be  near  at 
hand,  as  hauling  over  rough  country  roads  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  and  transshipment  from 
cars  to  boat,  or  vice-versa,  is  to  be  dreaded,  as  every  dis- 
turbance is  promotive  of  decay,  and  attended  by  expense 
in  some  shape  or  other,  as  well  as  liable  to  cause  delay. 
The  writer  would  impress  upon  all  not  to  embark  in  the 
business  of  market  gardening  and  small  fruit  growing, 
however  much  they  may  be  tempted  by  ready  transpor- 
tation, unless  they  are,  themselves,  favorably  located  for 
such  pursuits ;  for  a  good  location  means  not  only  trans- 
portation, but  condition  of  soil,  and  availability  of  labor . 

There  are  other  crops  besides  garden  vegetables  and 
fruit  which  will,  in  many  locations,  pay  more  certainly, 
and,  as  a  necessary  result,  more  fully,  in  the  end — just 
as  the  moderate  man,  who  is  content  with  six  per  cent, 
well  secured  on  land,  fares  better,  finally,  than  he  who 
grasps  at  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  a  month  on 
doubtful  paper. 

Where  transportation,  climate,  soil,  ability  to  com- 
mand labor  and  manure,  unite  to  point  out  any  special 
spot  as  well  adapted  to  the  object,  the  next  point  of 
inquiry  is,  which  crops  are  the  best  to  grow  ?  This  is, 
also,  an  all-important  subject  to  be  considered,  inasmuch 
as  the  facility  for  shipment  may  be  all  that  is  desirable, 
but  the  distance  from  market  too  great  to  afford  hope 
for  the  successful  transportation  of  the  more  perishable 
class  of  products.  Within  fifty  to  sixty  hours  of  market 
by  rail  or  boat,  delicate  fruits  and  comparatively  perish- 
able culinary  vegetables  may  be  moved  successfully,  but 
beyond  that  .distance  danger  of  decay  increases,  and  the 
business  assumes  too  much  the  complexion  of  a  lottery, 
where  the  blanks  far  out-number  the  prizes.  A  ship- 
ment, eighty  hours  on  its  travels,  may  occasionally  reach 


MARKET   GARDENING. 

its  destination  and  pay  largely^  but  the  loss  on  other 
shipments  which  may  arrive  at  destination  heated  and 
decayed  will  more  than  absorb  previous  profits. 

Much,  however,  depends  on  the  season,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  shipment  from  Florida  to  the  North  during 
the  winter  months  will,  if  not  frozen  in  transit,  carry 
twice  as  long  as  in  spring  or  autumn,  and  three  times  as 
long  as  in  summer.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  not  only 
must  there  exist  certain  conditions  as  respects  facility 
for  shipment,  but  the  adoption  of  the  locality,  with  ref- 
erence to  distance  from  market,  must  be  carefully  con- 
sidered, before  deciding  as  to  the  crops  to  be  grown. 

With  such  a  location  as  Burlington  county,  New  Jer- 
sey, where  the  writer  has  a  farm,  and  where  have  congre- 
gated so  vast  a  number  of  "truckers,"  as  they  are  pop- 
ularly called,  and  small  fruit  growers,  attracted  by  the 
light  kindly  soils,  admitting  of  tillage  early  in  the 
spring,  and  the  markets  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
in  close  proximity,  where  gathering  of  perishable  vege- 
tables and  picking  of  fruit  may  be  pursued  till  sunset, 
and  the  next  morning  find  them  in  market,  everything 
which  the  climate  admits  may  be  successfully  produced. 
Still  further  south,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk,  Wil- 
mington and  Savannah,  other  cultivators  are  pursuing 
market  gardening  on  a  larger  scale,  and,  although  the 
transportation  is  more  expensive  and  of  longer  duration, 
these  points  are  still  within  easy  reach  of  market,  while 
the  earlier  season  in  which  crops  are  produced  is  a 
compensation  for  increased  expenses.  It  may  not  be 
fully  realized  by  all  persons  into  whose  hands  this  work 
may  fall,  that  the  time  or  season  in  which  a  vegetable 
delicacy  or  choice  fruit  is  placed  in  market  has  an 
important  influence  on  the  price.  In  our  large  commer- 
cial and  manufacturing  cities  where  wealth  has  concen- 
trated, and  where  abound  families  who  live  regardless 
of  expenditures,  fabulous  prices  are  freely  paid  for  vege- 
tables and  fruits  to  please  the  palate  or  adorn  the  table. 


10  MARKET   GARDENING. 

Products. — At  Norfolk  are  grown  extra  early  peas 
in  great  quantity,  string  or  snap  short  beans,  early  cu- 
cumbers, tomatoes,  kale,  cabbage,  spinach,  early  squash 
and  early  potatoes,  and  other  articles  of  minor  import- 
ance. Berry  culture  is  also  pursued  there,  and  large 
quantities  of  strawberries  reach  the  Northern  markets 
from  that  quarter,  and  several  weeks  before  those  grown 
near  Philadelphia  are  ripe.  Melons  also  find  there  a 
congenial  soil  along  rivers  and  water-courses,  and  where 
ready  means  of  transportation  admit  of  carriage  of  bulky 
articles  at  reasonable  rates.  To  illustrate  the  extent  to 
which  trucking  at  Norfolk  is  pursued  may  be  cited  the 
spinach  crop  grown  there,  which  annually  takes  one 
hundred  thousand  pounds  of  seed  to  sow  the  land. 

Still  further  south,  from  the  ports  of  Charleston 
and  Savannah,  come  to  us  in  advance  of  those  of  Nor- 
folk, peas,  beans,  asparagus,  cucumbers,  cabbage,  pota- 
toes and  berries. 

But  is  it  necessary  to  profitable  gardening  that 
there  should  be  great  variety  ?  On  this  subject 
there  are  two  distinct  views,  one  set  of  men  directing 
their  energies  to  the  production  of  a  limited  variety, 
aiming  to  grow  and  ship  those  well.  Such  a  system 
affords  a  longer  time  for  planting  and  culture,  the  mind 
not  being  harassed  by  the  conflicting  claims  of  many 
crops,  the  few  which  grow  being  harvested,  affording 
an  opportunity  to  plan  for  the  future  and  rest  from  the 
labors  of  the  past.  A  second  set  of  cultivators  planting 
more  or  less  of  everything,  at  every  season,  always  plant- 
ing, seeding,  marketing,  a  never-ceasing  round  of  labor 
and  anxiety.  This  system,  however,  seems  to  be  one 
which,  by  its  very  diversification,  offers  the  best  hope  of 
profit,  as  the  cultivator  does  not  carry  all  his  eggs  in 
one  basket,  nor  in  several,  but  in  many. 

With  the  seven  millions  of  people  of  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  Boston,  St.  Louis  and  Chicago,  and  the  many 


MARKET   GARDENING.  11 

millions  more  in  other  cities  and  towns  which  look  to 
these  great  distributing  markets  for  supplies,  there  is, 
at  seasonable  seasons,  little  fear  of  gorging  the  markets 
of  the  country  if  the  fruit  and  vegetables  be  well  chosen 
and  well  packed.  The  reader  will  observe  the  cautious 
use  of  the  expression  seasonable  season,  as,  of  course,  no 
Southern  grower  of  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  egg  plant  or 
other  garden  products  would  expect  to  find  a  market  for 
his  goods  in  Northern  cities  when  those  markets  were 
in  receipt  of  the  same  class  of  garden  truck  from  terri- 
tory adjacent,  the  products  of  which  would  be  fresher 
and  cheaper  than  those  from  distant  points.  The  ship- 
per of  fruits  and  vegetables  from  the  South,  attempting 
to  cope  with  the  garden  States  of  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware, when  their  products  are  being  sent  to  market, 
would  only  have  his  trouble  for  his  pay 

It  will  be  perceived,  from  the  reference  to  the  great 
distributing  markets,  that  they  must  be  reached  by  sev- 
eral channels  or  lines  of  transportation.  In  the  East 
along  the  seaboard  by  steamer  or  coast  railway  lines  from 
points  as  far  south  as  Key  West,  inland  up  to  St.  Louis, 
Chicago,  Detroit,  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  Cincinnati, 
Cleveland,  by  the  various  railways  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, from  gardening  sections  of  Louisiana,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, Tennessee,  further  west  still  on  north  and  south 
lines  from  Texas  and  Arkansas.  In  continuation  of  the 
remarks  on  the  limited  or  comprehensive  systems  of 
cropping,  it  may  be  added  that  there  are  two  extremes. 

First:  —  That  of  too  fine  a  concentration,  the 
reduction  of  the  varieties  to  a  very  few,  the  carrying  of 
all  of  the  eggs  in  one  basket,  a  glutted  market  of  sucli 
fruits  and  vegetables,  sweeping  away  all  hopes  of  profit, 
with  no  resources  in  other  crops.  If  the  cultivator  is  at 
a  distance,  requiring  over  a  day  or  two  to  reach  the 
larger  markets,  then  four  or  five  varieties  which  develop 
well  should  be  planted.  The  nearer  the  cultivator  is  to 


12  MARKET   GARDENING. 

market,  the  greater  the  range  of  varieties  he  can  ship 
successfully. 

Second  : — That  of  too  great  diversification  and  the 
undertaking  to  grow  too  many  kinds  of  vegetables, 
requiring  widely  diiferent  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
the  land,  perhaps,  being  very  favorable  to  some,  and  to 
others  not  adapted  at  all. 

If  growers  in  the  Southern  States  would  continue  to 
raise,  each  year,  such  varieties  as  have  proved  adapted  to 
their  soil  and  location,  and  avoid  overcropping  with  such 
sorts,  which,  by  accident,  paid  the  largest  return  the  pre- 
ceding season,  their  average  yearly  return  would  certainly 
be  better.  To  illustrate  this  more  clearly,  it  may  be 
well  to  note  a  circumstance  which  occurred  during  the 
spring  of  1890.  The  spring  before,  Philadelphia  received 
a  limited  supply  of  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
quarts  per  day  of  strawberries  from  Florida,  very  early, 
and  very  good,  and  they  found  ready  sale  at  from  sixty 
cents  to  one  dollar  per  quart,  the  consequence  being  the 
setting  out  in  Florida  of  a  very  largely  increased  acreage 
of  strawberry  plants.  Now,  what  was  the  result  ?  The 
receipts  from  the  same  section  the  spring  of  1891 
ran  from  one  thousand  to  two  thousand  quarts  per  day, 
and  they  were  retailed  through  the  streets  by  hawkers 
at  fifteen  to  eighteen  cents  per  quart,  the  results  of 
over-production. 

Large  quantities  of  new  potatoes  reach  the  markets 
of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  from  Bermuda,  Charles- 
ton, Savannah,  Florida,  and,  still  later,  but  before  North- 
ern crops  mature,  from  Virginia  and  Maryland,  and 
there  is  room  for  more,  at  paying  prices,  and  they  who 
present  them  early,  of  good  sorts  and  in  good  condition, 
need  not  apprehend  a  want  of  customers. 

Florida,  however,  seems  to  be  destined  to  be  the 
market  garden  of  the  Atlantic  States,  as  the  gardening 
year  there  is  one  of  almost  continued  sowing  and  har- 


MAKKET   GARDENING.  13 

vesting.  So  unusual  are  the  conditions  that  they  have 
upset  all  the  usual  gardening  records  of  the  seasons,  for 
the  Florida  trucker,  working  throughout  the  length  of  a 
peninsula  of  two  hundred  milesp  is  sowing  nearly  every 
kind  of  seed  in  every  month,  and  marketing  crops  out 
of  their  usual  seasons.  For  instance,  egg  plant  is  sown 
in  August,  onion  seed  in  October,  tomato  seed  in  Novem- 
ber, and  so  on.  The  ordinary  routine  of  sowing  has  been 
disturbed,  and  yet  everything  appears  to  grow  in  profu- 
sion and  to  perfection. 

Fertilizers. — The  subject  of  fertilizers  is  one  which 
looms  up  boldly  and  expensively  when  considering  the 
culture  of  garden  products,  especially  those  designed  for 
early  maturity.  The  writer  is  asked  every  day  what 
kind  of  manure  is  best  for  this  or  that  crop.  Is  guano 
good  ?  Do  you  use  superphosphate  ?  He  can  only 
answer  in  general  terms.  Yes,  they  are  all  good,  if  made 
by  reliable  parties  ;  but  which  is  most  valuable  in  respect 
to  cost  and  effects  produced  will  depend,  in  no  small 
degree,  on  each  particular  surrounding.  In  localities 
where  horses  and  cattle  abound,  stable  manures  will  usu- 
ally be  attainable  at  moderate  prices  ;  especially  will  this 
be  the  case  where  gardening  is  not  pursued  to  a  large 
extent,  and  the  sale  of  manure  is  mainly  to  ordinary  far- 
mers, who  are  not  accustomed  to  paying  high  prices. 

On  the  other  hand,  around  Philadelphia,  for 
instance,  the  charge  for  the  article  in  question  is  fear- 
fully exorbitant,  the  price  it  generally  commands  at 
that  city  is  seventy  cents  per  small  cartload,  delivered 
on  board  boat  or  car.  Eight  such  loads  can  readily  be 
drawn  by  two  good  horses,  as  has  frequently  been  done 
at  Bloomsdale.  Under  such  conditions  of  expense,  the 
gardener  must  resort  to  all  the  fertilizers  within  reach, 
hoping  to  find  something  less  expensive,  but  all  are  gen- 
erally quite  costly. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  expenditure  for  manure  when 
intense  effects  are  to  be  produced,  the  writer  will  add 


14:  MAilKET  GARDENING. 

that  one  year  the  order  for  Bloomsdale  and  Reedland 
Farms,  six  hundred  and  fifty  acres,  reached  the  sum  of 
twenty  thousand  dollars.  When  stable  manure  cannot 
be  had,  as  in  a  sparsely  settled  country,  wood  ashes  may 
play  an  important  part,  and,  if  artificial  fertilizers  need 
to  be  bought,  superphosphate  and  Peruvian  guano  will 
come  in  as  useful  adjuncts  to  home  manure,  compost 
and  green  crops,  plowed  under.  Baugh's  superphosphate 
is  in  good  repute  in  Philadelphia,  and  we  feel  warranted 
to  say,  from  our  own  experience,  that  it  is  reliable.  In 
short,  all  organic  matter,  and  nearly  every  substance 
that  decomposes,  is  able,  if  rightly  applied,  to  stimulate 
vegetable  growth.  But  let  it  be  observed,  for  on  this 
fact  much  depends,  the  product,  in  respect  to  earliness, 
is  influenced  in  pi-oportion  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
manure  applied.  The  truck  gardeners  of  Philadelphia 
understand  this  well,  and  place  in  market,  by  the  aid  of 
excessive  application  of  excremenfcitious  matter,  cabbage, 
lettuce,  radish,  beets,  long  before  they  are  fit  for  use  in 
private  gardens,  where  such  rank  manures  would  not  be 
countenanced,  and,  of  course,  with  extra  early  products, 
they  reap  large  profits. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  prepare  manure  in  advance  of 
the  season  of  demand,  by  making  compost  heaps,  as  they 
are  called,  which  can  be  drawn  upon  as  needed,  without 
having  to  look  up  fertilizers  at  a  busy  time,  and  when 
crops  may  be  delayed,  awaiting  their  arrival.  The  expe- 
rienced cultivator  understands  all  this  equally  well  with 
the  writer,  but  he  is  advising  the  inexperienced,  those 
who  inquire  of  him  the  why  and  the  wherefore,  and  to 
such  only,  be  it  understood,  is  he  addressing  himself. 

Another  point  of  important  consideration  and  of 
interest  to  those  who  design  embarking  in  the  business 
of  gardening,  whether  for  market  or  private  gratifica- 
tion, are  the  implements  best  adapted  for  such  work. 

Implements — If  the  operations  are  designed  to 


MABKET  GARDENING.  15 

embrace  several  acres  there  will  be  needed  a  good  two- 
horse  steel  plow,  costing,  say  ten  dollars,  for  breaking 
up  the  soil  to  a  proper  depth  in  spring,  and  whenever 
the  land  is  recropped ;  a  light  one-horse  steel  plow,  cost- 
ing five  dollars,  for  drawing  open  furrows,  closing  them, 
earthing  up  such  crops  as  are  benefited  by  such  culture ; 
a  harrow,  best  of  iron,  as  it  is  lighter  than  wood  ;  an 
Iron  Age  cultivator,  with  a  full  set  of  movable  teeth, 
price  three  dollars,  for  pulverizing  the  soil  between 
drilled  crops;  a  clod  crusher,  or  leveler,  readily  made 
of  three  boards  nailed  together  to  form  a  triangle,  to  be 
drawn  from  either  angle ;  a  seed  drill,  the  Matthews  or 
the  Model,  costing  six  to  eight  dollars,  both  being  used 
on  Bloomsdale  with  satisfaction  ;  or,  still  better,  a  Keeler 
seed  drill,  price  $9.00,  which  will  sow  continuous  rows, 
or  drop  the  seed  in  hills,  from  ten  to  thirty-six  inches ; 
a  Lees  wheel  hoe  costing  five  dollars ;  a  full  set  of  hoes 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes  for  side  scraping  and  cross 
cutting.  With  these  simple  implements  nearly  all  the 
necessary  appliances  will  be  at  command ;  others,  if  need- 
ful, may  be  procured  at  the  hardware  stores. 

Crates. — The  boxes  and  baskets  in  which  garden 
products  are  to  be  transported  to  market,  are  of  great 
importance ;  for  it  is  self-evident,  unless  proper  precau- 
tion be  taken,  perishable  articles  may  reach  their  desti- 
nation so  badly  damaged  as  not  to  be  worth  the  freight. 

For  strawberries,  blackberries  and  raspberries,  very 
light  boxes  are  manufactured  by  parties  who  make  a 
business  of  it,  and  sell  them  at  low  prices.  .Some  of 
these  are  made  at  so  slight  a  cost  as  to  be  given  away  to 
the  purchaser  of  the  fruit ;  others  are  expected  to  be 
returned  to  the  commission  merchant,  who,  in  turn, 
dispatches  them  to  the  grower  from  whom  they  came. 
Others  are  made  with  a  view  to  greater  ventilation,  and 
that  is  of  special  importance  when  the  point  of  shipment 
is  distant  from  market.  Peas,  beans,  cucumbers,  can  be 


16  MAEKET 


shipped  in  ventilated  one  bushel  baskets  made  for  such 
purposes. 

Potatoes  usually  reach  the  Northern  markets  from 
the  South  packed  in  second-hand  flour  barrels,  but  it  is 
questionable  whether  it  would  not  pay  to  put  them  up, 
especially  those  barely  ripe  enough  to  ship,  in  half  bar- 
rel or  one  bushel  pea  baskets,  so  as  better  to  adapt  the 
quantity  to  family  wants.  But  few  private  persons  wish 
to  buy  a  whole  barrel  of  rare-ripe  potatoes,  but  many 
families  could  consume  a  bushel  before  they  would  grow 
stale,  which  immature  ones  are  liable  to  do.  Thus,  with 
smaller  packages,  a  direct  domestic  market  could  be 
formed  for  vast  quantities,  and  not,  as  now,  have  the  sale 
confined  to  provision  stores  and  other  retail  dealers,  each 
party,  through  whose  hands  they  pass,  adding  a  profit 
until  they  reach  so  high  a  price  as  to  deter  purchasers 
from  buying  liberally. 

Pea  baskets  are  gotten  up  of  thin  stuff,  slatted  on 
all  sides,  to  admit  air.  There  are  sometimes  rim?,  or 
projections,  so  as  to  obviate  compact  storage  of  the  bas- 
kets while  in  transportation,  thus  securing  a  sure  circu- 
lation of  air. 

Large  quantities  of  potatoes  reached  the  Northern 
market  in  former  years  from  Ireland,  put  up  in  cylin- 
drical wicker-work  hampers,  and  they  came  in  excellent 
condition,  and  it  is  probable  such  hampers  could  be 
made  in  the  South  very  cheaply.  Oranges  and  lemons 
from  Florida  might  also  reach  the  North  in  the  same 
form,  as  there  are  thousands  of  families  who  would  buy 
a  small  hamper  of  fruit,  who  now  purchase  only  a 
dozen  at  a  time.  It  is  not  simply  the  interest  of  the 
producer  to  transport  his  crop  in  market,  but  to  do  so  in 
a  form  that  will  entice  customers,  by  giving  them  the 
least  possible  trouble  and  inconvenience  when  supplying 
their  wants.  The  writer  is  merely  throwing  out  hints, 
practical  minds  will  work  out  the  problems  themselves. 


MAKKET   GARDENING.  17 

There  may  be  some  people  with  but  little  experience 
in  tillage,  who  imagine  the  conduct  of  a  farm  or  garden 
is  like  that  of  a  manufactory,  where  the  amplification 
and  extension  of  the  business  is  only  limited  by  the  cap- 
ital at  command ;  and  when  they  hear  of  certain  large 
sums  being  realized  from  a  small  plot  of  ground,  argue 
that  the  same  ratio  of  profit  may  be  extended  over  an 
indefinite  area ;  this  is  a  great  mistake,  as  they  are  posi- 
tively certain  to  realize,  if  they  undertake  to  prove  their 
theory ;  and  hence  we  recommend  all  readers  who  incline 
to  start  in  the  enterprise  herein  discussed,  to  feel  their 
way.  One  season's  experience  may  enlarge  their  confi- 
dence, or  it  may  teach  them  without  serious  loss,  that 
either  they  or  their  locations  are  unfitted  to  the  business. 
Undoubtedly  the  greater  profit  will  be  found  in  doing  a 
little  well,  rather  than  in  imperfect  efforts  to  accom- 
plish more  than  the  facilities  at  hand  warrant  one  to 
undertake. 


CHAPTER  II. 
LOCATION  AND  SOILS. 

As  a  rule,  the  best  exposure  is  a  gentle  slope  to  the 
south,  but  in  hilly  countries  such  cannot  always  be 
obtained,  and  good  gardens  are  often  seen  facing  to 
every  point  of  the  compass.  The  site,  face  which  way  it 
may,  should  preferably  be  an  even  plane,  be  it  level  or 
sloping;  that  is  to  say,  a  table-like  surface,  without 
dish-like  hollows,  on  the  one  hand,  or  knolls,  on  the 
other ;  but  even  an  inability  to  meet  these  latter  condi- 
tions need  not  deter  an  active  worker,  for  frequently  the 
best  gardens  are  met  with  in  localities  anything  but  cor- 
responding to  the  requirements  of  theory. 


18  MAEKET 


As  sunlight  is  the  great  factor,  in  the  growth  of 
vegetables,  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  afford- 
ing uninterrupted  access  for  every  ray  of  sun  to  the  grow- 
ing crops,  hence  no  houses,  barns,  sheds,  fences  or  trees, 
should  be  allowed  to  cast  shadows  at  any  time  upon  the 
garden  surface  ;  and  trees,  even  so  located  as  not  to  cast 
a  shadow  on  the  crop,  may  be  robbing  them  both  of 
their  moisture  and  fertility  by  their  wide-reaching  roots, 
which  should  be  cufc  off  by  sinking  a  deep  trench  between 
them  and  the  garden. 

Soils.  —  The  soil  may  be  anything  but  brick  clay, 
theoretically  a  light  sandy  loam  is  best,  but  here,  again, 
astonishing  results  are  often  obtained  on  forbidding 
soils  ;  for  instance,  on  sticky  red  clays  and  sands,  the 
latter  seemingly  no  better  than  those  of  the  seashore. 
No  soil  should  be  considered  entirely  bad  until  it  has 
been  proven  so. 

So  much  of  success  or  failure  in  garden  operations 
depends  upon  the  natural  character  of  soil,  that  the 
composition  of  each  field  of  a  farm  should  be  closely 
observed,  if  not  in  the  scientific  view  of  geological 
formation  and  chemical  composition,  then  in  the  more 
ordinary  view  of  the  mechanical  conditions,  as  respects 
texture,  weight,  porosity,  adhesiveness  and  aeration. 

Soils  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions,  as  respects 
their  origin  : 

1st.  Sedimentary  —  A  soil  formed  entirely  out  of 
the  local  rocks. 

3d.  Drift  —  Soils  formed  out  of  divers  materials, 
irregularly  mixed  and  deposited  without  stratifioatioa. 

3d.  Alluvial  —  A  soil  of  flood  deposit  by  water, 
the  finer  particles  being  on  the  top. 

This  soil  is  the  only  one,  as  a  rule,  of  any  agricul- 
tural value,  and  it  may  be  said  to  be  derived  from 
broken,  pulverized,  decomposed  rock  brought  by  water 
from  many  and  far  distant  parts  and  deposited  in  layers, 


LOCATION   AND   SOILS.  19 

the  heavier  being  at  the  bottom  and  the  lighter  at  the 
top.  An  alluvial  soil  may  be  divided  into  four  distinct 
classes : 

1st.  Gravelly — So  styled  from  the  abundance  of 
small  stones  or  pebbles  of  granite,  slate,  feldspar  and 
limestone. 

3d.  Sandy — So  styled  from  its  composition  of 
small  grains  of  rock.  Coarse  sands  are  generally  unprof- 
itable, while  finer  sands  are  more  fertile. 

3d.  Loamy — So  styled  as  being  between  the  poros- 
ity of  sand,  and  the  tenacity  of  clay. 

4th.  Clayey — So  styled  from  its  fineness  of  texture 
and  retentive  power  of  water.  A  soil  drying  and  crack- 
ing under  the  effects  of  hot  sun. 

A  soil,  to  be  fertile,  must  contain  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  ash  ingredients  of  the  plants  to  be  cultivated, 
and  these  must  be  in  such  soluble  condition  as  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  growing  plants.  Soils  once  fertile  are 
said  to  be  exhausted  when  deprived  of  such  food  as  is 
required  for  plant  nutrition,  but  rest  and  meliorating 
treatment  will,  in  time,  restore  such  soils  to  a  fertile 
condition. 

DRAINAGE. 

A  soil  has  good  drainage  when  it  is  of  such  compo- 
sition that  the  rain  filters  away  without  flooding  the  sur- 
face, and  when,  in  time  of  drouth,  the  evil  effects  are 
lessened  by  the  ability  of  the  soil  particles  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  air  and  raise  it  from  the  subsoil. 

A  soil,  to  be  adapted  to  gardening  purposes,  must 
have  fair  drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial,  and  it  is 
the  wisest  course  to  select  land  naturally  possessing  these 
desirable  conditions,  as  the  construction  of  artificial 
drains  is  an  expensive  operation,  often  doubling  the 
original  cost  of  the  land. 

Good  drainage,  like  tillage,  has  a  vitalizing  effect, 
admitting  of  the  entry  of  air  and  the  deposition  of  its 


20  MAKKET   GARDENING. 

oxygen,  carbon  and  nitrogen ;  ifc  also  warms  the  soils, 
while  poorly  drained  land,  by  the  course  of  evaporation, 
becomes  cold.  By  deepening  the  soil,  we  make  it  tillable 
soon  after  rain,  early  in  the  spring,  and  prevent  it  from 
becoming  sour,  hastening  the  chemical  actions  so  neces- 
sary in  promoting  the  growth  of  crops. 

TILLAGE  AND  CULTIVATION. 

These  operations,  often  spoken  of  as  the  same  pro- 
cess, are  distinct  operations,  tillage  being  the  breaking 
and  pulverizing  of  the  soil,  a  preparation  of  a  seed  bed, 
the  work  preparatory  to  the  sowing  of  seed.  Cultivation 
is  that  work  done  after  the  germination  of  the  seed, 
with  the  view  of  developing  a  rapid  growth  of  the  plant, 
and,  incidentally,  the  suppression  of  weeds. 

In  tillage,  the  ground  is  broken  by  plow,  spade,  or 
other  implement,  with  a  view  of  dividing  the  particles 
of  earth  and  increasing  the  internal  superfices  of  the 
soil,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  moisture  and  absorbing 
nutritive  principles  from  the  air.  Tillage  is  necessary 
on  land  of  any  character,  and  the  more  tillage  the  better 
the  results,  for  delicate  roots  cannot  take  up  nourish- 
ment as  well  amid  a  rough,  cloddy,  undisintegrated  soil, 
as  crops  in  close  contact  with  a  soil  well  pulverized, 
which  affords,  within  a  limited  area,  a  greater  percent- 
age of  available  air,  moisture,  organic  and  inorganic 
matter. 

Tillage  is  best  performed  with  a  spade,  but  as  this 
is  a  slow,  expensive,  and  exceedingly  laborious  process, 
digging  can  only  be  pursued  in  small  gardens.  On 
tracts  of  an  area  of  one-eighth  of  an  acre  and  over,  the 
plow,  in  this  country,  becomes  a  necessity,  and  this 
implement  has  now  been  lightened  and  perfected  so  as  to 
do  the  work  almost  equal  to  digging  itself.  Plowing 
twice  over  always  pays,  three  plowings  is  said  to  be  equal 
to  one  manuring.  A  garden  soil  may  hold  plant 


LOCATION   AND   SOILS.  21 

food  enough,  for  five  crops,  but  be  practically  barren  if 
the  fertilizing  materials  are  locked  up  in  impenetrable 
clods.  In  tillage,  the  plow  is  followed  by  the  harrow, 
the  clod  crusher  and  the  roller.  Frost  is  one  of  the  best 
pulverizers,  and  it  is  a  well  recognized  fact  that  we  gen- 
erally have  poor  summer  crops  succeeding  mild  winters, 
a  consequence  of  a  want  of  frost  action  on  the  soil. 

Cultivation  is  the  breaking  and  working  of  the  soil 
whilst  the  crop  is  growing;  the  tillage  had  previously 
loosened  and  divided  the  particles  of  soil,  but  during 
that  period  of  time  between  the  cessation  of  tillage  and 
the  germination  and  vegetation  of  the  plant  the  soil,  in 
part,  reverts  to  its  more  natural  solidity,  and  it  is  then 
that  cultivation  comes  in,  as  an  endeavor  to  retain  that 
friability  so  necessary  to  the  extension  of  the  roots  and 
their  ready  nutrition  ;  thus,  tillage  must  always  be  sup- 
plemented by  cultivation.  To  cultivate  a  crop  means 
to  pursue  that  course  with  the  soil  which  hastens  the 
development  of  the  plants,  and  incidentally  with  this 
comes  in  the  destruction  of  weeds,  which,  allowed  to 
grow,  starve  the  sown  plants  by  robbing  them  of  nutri- 
ment. Labor  given  to  tillage,  except  preparation  for 
broadcast  crops,  will  be,  to  a  large  extent,  wasted,  unless 
supplemented  by  such  culture  of  the  growing  crop  as 
will  preserve  the  earth  in  a  loose  and  fresh  condition. 
Jethro  lull,  a  well  known  agricultural  writer,  many 
years  ago  said,  "Tillage  is  manure," 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  SCIENCE  OF  GARDEKIXG, 

G-ardening,  as  pursued  in  its  higher  sense,  is  both 
an  art  and  a  science.  It  has  arrived  at  this  estate  by 
slow  gradations,  compared  with  the  development  of 
many  other  pursuits,  but  that  is  consequent  upon  its 
complex  nature.  The  development  of  a  knowledge  of 
geology,  chemistry,  meteorology,  vegetable  physiology 
and  botany,  indeed,  something  from  all  branches  of 
human  knowledge,  has  gone  to  perfect  the  science  of 
agriculture  and  horticulture  ;  pursuits  affording  as  wide 
a  range  of  research  in  their  ramifications  as  any  subject 
engaging  the  mind  of  man,  and  fully  as  important  in 
their  results.  Agriculture,  though  practiced  in  early 
days  without  any  correct  knowledge  of  cause  and  effect, 
was  always  held  in  high  esteem.  Columella,  contempo- 
rary with  Virgil,  wrote,  "The  art  of  husbandry  is  so 
necessary  for  the  support  of  human  life,  and  the  com- 
fortable subsistence  and  happiness  of  mankind  have  so 
great  a  dependence  upon  it,  that  the  wisest  men  in  all 
ages  have  ascribed  its  origin  to  God,  as  the  inventor  and 
ordainer  of  it,  and  the  wisest  of  civilized  nations,  who 
have  best  understood  their  true  interests,  have  always 
endeavored  to  promote  and  improve  it,  and  have  never 
failed  to  acknowledge  and  honor,  as  public  benefactors, 
all  such  as  have  contributed  anything  towards  the  same." 
In  colonial  days  our  forefathers  were  almost  entirely 
dependent  upon  agriculture.  Washington,  in  his  agri- 
cultural correspondence  with  Sir  John  Sinclair,  wrote, 
"It  will  not  be  doubted  that,  in  reference  either  to  indi- 


THE   SCIENCE   OF  GARDENING.  23 

viduals  or  to  national  welfare,  agriculture  is  of  primary 
importance."  Webster,  of  our  own  generation,  wrote, 
"Agriculture  feeds  us,  to  a  great  extent,  clothes  us; 
without  it  we  could  not  have  manufacturers,  and  we 
should  not  have  gommerce.  These  all  stand  in  a  clus- 
ter, the  largest  in  the  center,  and  that  largest  is  agri- 
culture." Agriculture  is,  indeed,  the  most  fruitful 
source  of  the  riches  of  a  country,  and  of  the  welfare  of 
its  inhabitants,  and  only  as  the  state  of  agriculture  is 
more  or  less  flourishing  can  we  judge  of  the  progress  of 
a  people. 

Gardening,  which  is  agriculture  upon  circumscribed 
areas,  has  ever  shared  with  the  latter  the  esteem  of  man- 
kind. Socrates  said,  "It  is  the  source  of  health, 
strength,  plenty,  riches  and  honest  pleasure;  and  an 
eminent  English  writer  said,  "It  is  amid  its  scenes  and 
pursuits  that  life  flows  pure,  the  heart  more  calmly 
beats." 

Agriculture  refers  to  the  tillage  of  the  earth  over 
broad  fields,  as  for  the  raising  of  cereals,  grass  or  tubers. 
Gardening,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  the  culture  of 
small  inclosed  areas.  This  application  of  the  latter  term 
was  quite  correct  originally,  but  it  is  now  common  for 
mere  vegetable  gardens  to  equal  the  area  of  ordinary 
grain  and  grass  farms,  requiring,  in  their  cultivation,  a 
degree  of  skill  and  an  amount  of  activity,  implements 
and  labor,  exceeding  that  expended  upon  large  farms. 

Gardening  again  differs  from  farming  in  the  range 
of  varieties  cultivated.  The  farmer  may  devote  his  acres 
to  those  crops  to  which  his  land  is  adapted,  but  the  gar- 
dener is  expected  to  grow  the  entire  list  of  vegetables, 
without  reference  to  the  composition  of  the  soil.  Such 
cultivation,  to  be  successful,  must  be,  to  some  extent, 
scientific.  The  cultivator  must  possess  a  knowledge  of 
the  facts  and  principles  which  underlie  his  art,  or  he 
will  certainly  fail. 


24  MAKKET  GARDENING. 

Viewed  in  the  light  of  the  present  age,  how  ridicu- 
lous the  directions  of  the  ancients  appear !  Take  Vir- 
gil's Georgics,  for  instance ;  he,  the  prince  of  Latin 
poets,  possessing  at  once  the  highest  intelligence  of  his 
day,  experience  as  a  husbandman,  ancUwith  the  stimulus 
of  a  royal  commission  to  revive  the  decaying  spirit  of 
husbandry  by  the  insinuating  charms  of  poetry ;  how 
crude  his  teachings  pertaining  to  the  laws  governing  the 
development  of  nature  in  the  vegetable  and  animal 
kingdoms !  Charming  to  read,  even  now,  and  correct 
still  in  many  practices,  yet  we  are  continually  jarred  by 
directions  the  opposite  of  scientific  teaching  and  experi- 
ence. The  ancients  were  ignorant  of  vegetable  physiol- 
ogy. Virgil,  Pliny  and  Oolumella  taught  that  any  cion 
might  be  grafted  on  any  stock;  Pliny  mentions  the 
effect  of  grafting  the  vine  on  the  elm,  and  other  ridicu- 
lous unions.  Notwithstanding  the  numerous  supersti- 
tions of  the  Eomans,  they  had  acquired  many  facts  per- 
taining to  husbandry;  they  pruned,  watered,  fenced, 
forced,  and  retarded  blossoms  and  fruit  much  as  we  do. 
Cato,  in  the  second  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
writing  upon  agriculture,  said,  " What  is  good  tillage? 
First,  to  plow;  second,  to  plow;  third,  to  manure. 
The  other  part  of  tillage  is  to  sow  plentifully,  to  choose 
your  seed  cautiously,  and  to  remove  as  many  weeds  as 
possible  in  the  season."  Thus,  it  will  be  perceived, 
quite  a  practical  view  of  agriculture  was  taken  two 
thousand  years  ago. 

Despite  the  teachings  of  the  ancients,  agriculture 
has  for  centuries  been  weighed  down  by  ignorance,  prej- 
udice and  imperfect  action.  The  force  of  custom  in 
every  country  has  held  the  farmer  in  chains ;  and  such 
still  is,  alas,  too  often  the  case,  even  in  this  land  of 
progress.  But  to  what  better  pursuit  can  an  able  mind 
turn  than  to  agriculture  ?  Without  it  men  would  live 
wandering  lives,  disputing  with  each  other  for  the  pos- 


THE   SCIENCE  OF  GARDENING.  25 

session  of  such  animals  as  they  could  catch,  and  for  the 
spontaneous  fruits  of  the  earth.  Without  agriculture 
there  would  be  no  bond  of  security  or  love  of  country ; 
it  is,  in  all  countries,  the  purest  source  of  public 
prosperity. 

One  of  the  greatest  of  all  the  sources  of  enjoyment 
resulting  from  the  possession  of  a  garden,  is  the  endless 
variety  which  it  affords,  both  in  the  processes  of  vegeta- 
tion as  it  goes  forward  to  maturity,  dormancy,  or  decay, 
and  in  the  almost  innumerable  kinds  of  plants  which 
may  be  raised,  even  in  the  smallest  garden.  Add  to  it  a 
small  greenhouse,  what  a  source  of-pleasure  and  instruc- 
tion does  it  not  hold  out  to  the  amateur  ?  Exactly  in 
proportion  as  the  outdoor  work  becomes  less  urgent  the 
indoor  operations  become  more  numerous.  The  amuse- 
ments and  the  products  which  a  small  glass  house  affords 
in  the  hands  of  an  expert  or  an  ingenious  amateur  are 
almost  without  end.  Labor  in  dealing  with  inanimate 
objects  has  not  that  enticement  and  recreation  about  it 
which  is  ever  present  to  him  who,  aiding  nature,  wit- 
nesses the  results  of  daily  toil  in  living  plants  changing 
their  forms  and  colors  day  by  day.  Thus,  there  is  a 
deal  of  enjoyment  to  be  derived  from  the  different  oper- 
ations of  gardening,  independently  altogether  of  the 
health  resulting  from  the  exercise. 

Investigation  into  any  one  of  the  principles  of  vege- 
table growth  will  develop  another,  and  they,  in  time, 
will  be  found  so  intimately  connected  with  all  the  allied 
branches  of  natural  science  as  to  create  a  desire.f or  fur- 
ther knowledge  of  what  before  were  mysteries,  but  which 
the  intelligence  of  the  present  age  has  developed  into 
science.  A  well-cultivated  garden  will  awaken  inquiry, 
and  start  trains  of  thought  and  study  which  otherwise 
would  not  be  pursued.  The  close  observer  will  desire  to 
make  microscopic  observations  of  the  germination  of 
plants,  of  the  growth  of  fungi,  of  insect  life ;  and  here 


26  MARKET  GARDENIKG. 

we  pause,  for  there  is  opened  a  volume  of  nature  new  to 
most  men,  and  a  source  of  unexpected  pleasure.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  any  investigation  into  the 
agency  of  insects,  for  good  or  evil,  in  connection  with 
vegetation,  was  scarcely  considered  as  belonging  to  gar- 
dening ;  their  eggs  passed  unnoticed,  and  the  ravages  of 
the  larvae  were  looked  upon  frequently  as  atmospheric 
blights  beyond  control.  Now  the  entomologist  is  con- 
sulted every  day  by  the  agriculturist  and  gardener,  and 
no  section  of  the  museum  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  is  more  interesting  than  that 
devoted  to  entomology.  Countries  of  temperate  climates 
in  an  undeveloped  condition  support  a  limited  number 
of  species  of  insect  life,  and  they  are  generally  harmless 
to  vegetation,  but,  under  culture,  conditions  favorable  to 
their  increase  are  presente'd.  One  of  these  conditions  is 
the  wanton  destruction  of  birds,  after  which  follow  the 
myriad  tribes  of  insects  which  feed  upon  vegetation; 
species  not  alone  native  to  the  country,  but  brought  in 
the  course  of  commerce  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
For  example,  the  Hessian  fly  is  supposed  to  have  been 
brought  here  in  the  straw  used  by  the  Hessian  troops 
during  the  Revolution.  The  cabbage  butterfly  was 
brought  first  into  Montreal  in  cases  of  crockery  from 
Holland.  In  ten  or  twelve  years  it  has  extended  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  intelligent  culturist  will  be  brought  to  notice 
the  effect  of  various  forms  of  potash,  nitrogen  and  lime ; 
he  will  gradually  be  drawn  into  geological  research,  for 
he  must  study  the  peculiar  features  of  the  soil.  Finally, 
he  will  find  that  the  birds  are  his  co-partners  in  the  gar- 
den, and  the  common  tomtit  or  sparrow  will  no  longer 
be  looked  upon  with  a  careless  eye  by  reason  of  his  dull 
colors,  but  each  one  welcomed  as  the  destroyer  of  mil- 
lions of  injurious  insects.  Even  so  the  bat,  ugly  and  of 
nocturnal  habit,  will  no  longer  be  driven  away  or  looked 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  GARDENING.  27 

upon  with  disgust,  but  regarded  as  a  most  useful  ally. 
Of  what  does  gardening  consist  ?  Of  obtaining  from  the 
earth  vegetables  and  fruits  for  man  and  domestic  ani- 
mals; and  the  perfection  of  the  art  is  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  product  at  the  least  possible  expense. 
From  the  earliest  times  gardening  has  advanced,  and 
receiving  always  the  first  attention,  it  has,  in  each  suc- 
ceeding generation,  become  more  perfect  than  in  the 
one  preceding. 

The  development  of  field  and  garden  culture  to  its 
present  condition  is  the  result  of  the  union  of  theory 
and  practice.  The  greatest  expansion  has  been  in  a 
chemical  and  physiological  point  of  view,  and  this  devel- 
opment, strange  as  it  may  seem,  dates  back  not  farther 
than  forty  years.  Agriculture  and  horticulture  before 
that  time  may  be  said  to  have  been  conducted  under  a 
Virgilian  system ;  cultivators  adhering  more  to  blind 
custom  than  to  reason.  In  the  year  1795  the  first  book 
in  English  upon  the  relations  of  agriculture  and  chem- 
istry was  published,  and,  though  containing  some  truth, 
its  teachings  are  ridiculous  under  the  light  of  the 
present  day. 

The  first  accurate  analyses  of  a  vegetable  was  not 
made  till  the  year  1810,  and  so  late  as  1838  the  Gottin- 
gen  Academy  offered  a  prize  for  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  question  whether  the  ingredients  of  the  ashes  are 
essential  to  vegetable  growth.  The  last  forty  years  have 
placed  agriculture  upon  a  scientific  foundation,  and  the 
strides  of  development  have  been  wonderful.  The  inves- 
tigations of  all  scientific  men,  in  their  particular  pur- 
suits, have  served  to  dispel  ancient  theories  and  develop 
the  intricate  system  of  germination,  subsistence  and 
growth. 

It  is,  fortunately,  the  case  that  every  soil  holds 
more  or  less  of  the  inorganic  parts  essential  to  vegetable 
growth.  They  may  be  briefly  enumerated  as  sulphates, 


28  MARKET  GARDENING. 

phosphates,  nitrates,  chlorides  and  carbonates  of  potash, 
lime,  magnesia,  iron  and  ammonia.  Those  ingredients 
that  are  deficient  in  quantity  can  be  readily  added  by 
the  application  of  stable  manure,  which  contains  every- 
thing desirable,  or  by  specific  application  of  the  constit- 
uent wanting.  The  time  has  come  when  every  farmer 
must  possess  some  knowledge  of  natural  history ;  he 
must  prepare  himself,  if  he  expects  to  follow  his  pursuit 
successfully,  as  much  as  does  the  mechanic  or  the  pro- 
fessional man.  Why  should  not  the  national  govern- 
ment establish  at  frontier  army  posts  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  ?  This  nation  is  eminently  agricultural, 
and  it  is  within  the  province  of  the  government  to 
develop  its  resources  in  every  practical  way. 

The  war  department  and  the  agricultural,  working 
in  connection,  could,  in  a  few  years,  establish  a  series  of 
experiment  stations,  at  once  of  national  importance 
and  of  hygienic  advantage  to  each  garrison.  A  post 
garden  is  practicable  at  any  military  station  ;  of  course, 
under  so  great  a  variety  of  conditions  as  presented  to 
the  soldiers  of  an  army,  each  garden  would  differ  from 
the  other  in  some  particulars ;  some  upon  mountain 
slopes,  others  in  valleys,  on  plains  both  fertile  and  arid  ; 
all  influenced  by  meteorological  conditions  of  widely 
different  effect.  Such  gardens  would  have  to  conform 
to  circumstances,  and  the  more  difficult  these  circum- 
stances may  be  to  surmount,  the  more  pleasure  in  the 
results,  both  in  a  gastronomic  and  scientific  view. 

In  Europe  they  do  some  things  better  than  we,  not- 
withstanding our  boasted  practicability,  and  foremost 
among  their  advances  is  that  of  public  instruction.  To- 
day, in  Austria  and  Sweden,  there  are  many  thousands 
of  public  schools  having  gardens  attached,  where  are 
taught  botany,  vegetable  physiology,  and  sometimes  the 
whole  range  of  science  and  art  so  necessary  to  a  thorough 
understanding  of  vegetable  growth  and  development. 


THE   SCIENCE   OF   GARDENING.  29 

Sweden  alone  possesses  two  thousand  public  school- 
gardens,  and  there,  as  in  Austria,  the  system  has  become 
so  popular  that  all  new  school  buildings  have  one  room 
set  apart  as  a  school-garden  room,  where  are  assembled 
herbariums,  works  on  agriculture,  geology,  agricultural 
chemistry  and  physiology,  and  apparatus  used  by  the 
teachers  in  their  lectures  upon  plant-life.  The  public 
school  law  passed  in  Austria  in  1869,  provided  that  "In 
every  school  a  gymnastic  ground,  a  garden  for  the 
teacher,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  commun- 
ity, and  a  place  for  the  purposes  of  agricultural  experi- 
ment be  created."  The  school  inspectors  of  each  dis- 
trict are  instructed  "To  see  to  it  that  in  the  country 
schools  school-gardens  shall  be  provided  for  agricultural 
instruction  in  all  that  relates  to  the  soil,  and  that  the 
teacher  shall  make  himself  skillful  in  such  instruction." 
The  general  law  declares,  "Instruction  in  natural  his- 
tory is  indispensable  to  suitably  established  school-gar- 
dens, The  teachers  must,  therefore,  be  in  a  condition 
to  conduct  them."  Contrast  tftis  thoughtful  care  with 
the  system,  or  rather,  want  of  system,  for  the  finer 
instruction  of  the  mind  pursued  in  the  public  schools  of 
our  rural  districts !  The  time  will  come  when,  in  this 
country,  as  in  Europe,  more  practiced  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  practical  instruction  of  the  masses  in  our 
country  districts  than  now ;  our  boasted  public  school 
system,  though  not  retrograding  in  our  cities,  has,  in 
the  country  districts,  been  far  outstripped  by  that  of 
Germany,  Sweden  and  Scotland,  where  technical  educa- 
tion is  now  given,  fitting  the  pupils,  as  men  and  women, 
to  deal  with  the  affairs  of  agricultural  life. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
CHEMISTET  OF  THE  GAKDEH. 

The  chemistry  of  the  garden  is  that  science  which 
attempts  to  define  the  action  of  plants  upon  the  chemi- 
ical  constituents  of  the  soil  and  air;  consequently 
includes  the  studies  of  garden  geology,  the  nature  of 
minerals  composing  the  soil,  vegetable  physiology  and 
plant  nutrition,  each  indicating  how  the  chemical  sub- 
stances are  made  use  of  by  the  vegetable  world.  The 
subject  of  agricultural  chemistry  is  a  voluminous  and 
intricate  one,  and  only  a  very  brief  reference  can  be 
made  to  it  here.  Nothing  more  can  be  here  attempted, 
than  to  lead  the  reader  to  desire  for  further  information, 
obtainable  from  the  writings  and  reports  of  men  like 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of  England,  Samuel  W.  Johnson, 
and  others,  of  this  country.  All  garden  and  farm  plants 
may,  as  respects  their  food,  be  divided  into  three  classes  : 

First: — Those  requiring  an  excess  of  potash,  as 
peas,  beans,  potatoes,  clover,  flax. 

Second: — Those  requiring  much  nitrogen,  as  beets, 
cabbage,  oats,  wheat,  barley  and  hemp. 

Third: — Those  requiring  large  amounts  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  as  radish,  turnip  and  corn. 

Plants  draw  some  food  from  the  air  by  their  leaves, 
but  most  from  the  earth  by  their  roots.  The  composition 
of  the  air  is  quite  constant,  but  the  character  of  the  soil  is 
exceedingly  variable,  and  crops  grown  continuously  upon 
a  soil  draw  out  one  or  more  of  its  nutritive  principles ; 
consequently,  it  can  only  be  reinvigorated  by  returning 
to  it  those  elements  removed  in  the  crops. 

30 


CHEMISTRY    OF  THE   GARDEN.  31 

In  general,  the  method  of  maintaining  fertility  of  soils 
is  by  the  application  of  stable  or  barnyard  manure,  which 
may  be  termed  the  king  of  manures,  as  it  can  be  pro- 
duced upon  every  farm,  and  contains,  when  good,  all 
the  ingredients  needed  to  make  a  complete  and  assimila- 
ble manure.  Most  prominent  among  these  ingredients 
are  nitrogen  compounds,  phosphate  of  lime,  potash  and 
lime.  All  soils,  however,  do  not  need  the  addition  of 
all  four  agents  ;  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  often  not 
needed  for  peas,  beans  and  clover,  leguminous  crops. 
The  nitrogenized  matter,  on  the  other  hand,  is  often 
applied  to  wheat,  barley,  oats,  beets,  turnips,  and  it  may 
be  said  to  be  necessary  to  every  crop. 

The  potash,  the  active  principle  of  wood  ashes,  is  a 
suitable  fertilizer  for  peas,  beans,  clover,  flax  and  pota- 
toes. The  phosphate  of  lime  is  largely  drawn  upon  by 
corn,  turnip  and  radish.  The  chief  supply,  in  a  com- 
mercial way,  is  from  bones  which  contain  phosphate 
of  lime,  carbonate  of  lime,  a  little  gelatine,  albumen 
and  oil. 

The  lime,  ordinarily  in  the  form  of  carbonate  or 
sulphate,  is  not  so  pronounced  in  its  effects,  but  lime 
must  always  be  present  to  produce  the  best  results.  The 
question  may  occur,  where  can  these  concentrated  ingre- 
dients for  the  manufacture  of  a  complete  manure  be 
obtained ;  and  we  meet  the  query  by  saying,  assimilable 
nitrogen  may  be  had,  to  the  extent  of  twenty  per  cent. , 
in  sulphate  of  ammonia,  fifteen  per  cent,  in  nitrate  of 
soda,  fourteen  per  cent,  in  nitrate  of  potassa,  or  in  dried 
blood  or  flesh  from  slaughter  houses  or  fish  factories. 
These  nitrates,  preferably  that  of  potassa,  are  best  for 
vegetables,  especially  root  crops ;  the  sulphates  for  the 
cereals.  Phosphate  of  lime  can  be  had,  to  the  extent  of 
fifty  per  cent.,  in  bone  dust,  seventy  per  cent,  in  bone 
ashes  and  bone  black,  and  in  superphosphate  of  lime, 
which  is  phosphate  of  lime  treated  with  sulphuric  acid, 


32  MABKET  GARDENING. 

and  which,  when  properly  done,  should  contain  forty  per 
cent,  of  soluble  phosphate. 

Potash  is  contained  in  wood  ashes,  but  is  obtainable 
in  larger  quantities  in  nitrate  of  potassa,  commonly 
known  as  saltpeter,  which  salt  should  contain  forty-five 
per  cent,  potash,  with  the  valuable  addition  of  fourteen 
per  cent.  o:f  nitrogen.  Lime  is  found  chiefly  in  the  car- 
bonate of  lime,  as  chalk  or  limestone,  and  in  the  sul- 
phate of  lime,  as  gypsum  or  plaster  of  paris.  The  sul- 
phate is  best,  as  most  soluble.  The  average  prices  of 
these  four  maniirial  substances  named  are  : 

Bone  phosphate  of  lime 1J  cents  per  pound 

Nitrate  of  potassa 6£      "         "         " 

Nitrate  of  soda 2J      "         "         " 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 3£      "         "         " 

Sulphate  of  lime £      "        "         " 

Bone  phosphate  varies  in  commercial  value  just  as 
it  is  derived  from  native  phosphates,  such  as  South  Car- 
olina or  Florida  rock,  or  from  animal  raw  bones.  It 
is,  therefore,  difficult  to  fix  a  value  for  bone  phosphate 
of  lime. 

Application  of  Chemical  Manures — Chemical 
manures  should  be  distributed  as  regularly  as  possible, 
hence  the  work  cannot  be  done  on  a  windy  day.  If  time 
permits,  it  is  well  to  double  the  bulk  by  a  mixture  of  dam- 
pened loam,  and  this  addition  to  the  bulk  insures  a  more 
even  distribution.  In  a  general  way,  we  recommend  the 
following  application  to  the  crops  indicated.  For  beans, 
carrots,  cucumbers  and  general  garden  culture, 

Acid,  bone  phosphate  of  lime 300  pounds 

Nitrate  of  potassa 100       " 

Nitrate  of  soda 150      " 

Sulphate  of  lime 150       " 

Costing  about  sixteen  dollars. 

For  potatoes  we  recommend  : 

Acid,  bone  phosphate  of  lime 250  pounds 

Nitrate  of  potassa 150       " 

Sulphate  of  lime 150       " 

Costing  about  fifteen  dollars. 


CHEMISTEY   OF   THE   GARDEN.  33 

For  turnips,  ruta  baga,  corn,  sorghum  : 

Acid,  bone  phosphate  of  lime 300  pounds 

Nitrate  of  potassa 100       " 

Sulphate  of  lime 200       " 

Costing  about  thirteen  dollars. 

For  beans,  peas  and  clover  : 

Acid,  bone  phosphate  of  lime 200  pounds 

Nitrate  of  potassa 150       " 

Sulphate  of  lime 200       " 

Costing  about  fourteen  dollars. 

For  wheat,  barley,  pats  and  pasture  : 

Acid  phosphate  of  lime 100  pounds 

Nitrate  of  potassa 100       " 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 100       " 

Sulphate  of  lime 100       " 

Costing  about  twelve  dollars. 

The  unexampled  collection  of  wheats  shown  by  Lan- 
dreth  &  Son  at  the  Centennial  International  Exhibition 
of  1876,  were  grown  on  Bloomsdale  Farm,  fertilized  by  a 
preparation  made  after  the  last  named  prescription. 

The  writer  has  said  stable  manure  is  king,  but  it 
cannot  always  be  obtained  in  quantity,  nor  at  the  desired 
periods ;  failing  to  obtain  it  for  present  use,  we  recom- 
mend chemical  manures,  which,  used  in  seasons  not  too 
dry,  may  do  equally  well  at  less  cost ;  but  if  time  permits, 
green  manures  will  be  found  the  cheapest. 

Nitrogenized  matter  in  the  soil  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  growth  of  vigorous  crops,  and  the  fact  cannot 
be  too  strongly  impressed  on  every  gardener  that  nitro- 
gen and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  leading  manurial  ad- 
ditions required,  and  a  cheap  and  efficient  method  of 
application  should  occupy  his  constant  attention.  Ni- 
trogen, in  the  form  of  atmospheric  ammonia,  is  largely 
obtained  by  plants  through  their  leaves,  but  to  an  equally 
large  extent  does  the  soil  get  it  by  absorption,  and,  if 
covered,  it  holds  it,  and  in  this  simple  fact  is  one'of  the 
secrets  of  green  manuring.  Any  cover,  whether  of 
boards,  hay,  straw,  or  uncut  grass,  renders  the  soil 
quite  as  fertile  by  the  retention  of  nitrogen  as  by  the 
3 


34  MARKET   GARDENING. 

direct  yalue  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  hay,  straw, 
or  green  matter  upon  the  surface. 

That  the  soil  becomes  of  higher  fertility  when  cov- 
ered by  matter,  inert  or  otherwise,  so  that  the  air  is  not 
excluded,  cannot  be  denied.  A  case  is  known  to  the 
writer  where  a  remarkable  fertility  was  shown  by  a  soil 
which  had  been  covered  two  years  by  a  board  floor  on 
the  surface  of  an  open  field,  the  explanation  being  that 
the  soil  daily  absorbs  ammonia  jrom  the  air,  from  rain, 
dew,  and  decay  of  organic  matter,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  not  covered,  these  absorptions  are  as  rapidly  lost 
by  volatilization. 

Of  course,  the  most  natural  and  cheapest  covering 
for  the  soil  is  a  green  crop,  and  if  the  green  manuring 
is  to  be  done  between  spring  and  autumn,  experience 
points  to  corn  as  the  best  crop,  two  half-grown  crops 
being  better  than  one  allowed  to  reach  such  a  develop- 
ment as  to  be  difficult  to  plow  under,  the  first  crop  being 
planted  at  the  usual  season,  and  the  second  sixty  to 
seventy  days  subsequently,  the  latter  crop  being  plowed 
under  after  frost  checks  its  growth. 

On  Bloomsdale  Farm,  this  system  has  been  pursued 
with  profit,  but,  better  still,  rye  sown  in  the  October 
following  the  corn.  Ilye  has  proved  to  be  the  best  green 
manure  sown  in  October  or  November,  and,  when  prop- 
erly put  in,  will  produce  a  sponge-like  mat  of  from  four 
to  five  tons  of  root  fibers  and  fifteen  to  sixteen  tons  of 
green  herbage  to  turn  under  in  April  or  May,  and  early 
enough,  except  in  the  far  South,  for  crops  of  potatoes, 
onions,  melons  and  corn.  Rye,  grown  during  autumn 
and  winter,  only  occupies  the  ground  during  a  season  when 
no  other  crop  except  wheat  would  be  standing  out,  and  it 
covers'  the  soil  during  a  critical  period.  The  cost  of  a 
green  crop  of  rye  should  not  be  over  four  dollars  to  the 
acre,  say  one  dollar  for  seed,  one  and  a  half  dollars  for 
the  preparation  of  the  land,  one  and  a  half  dollars  for 
turning  under. 


MANURE    AND   FERTILIZERS.  35 

Four  crops  of  green  manure  can  be  turned  down  in 
seventeen  months,  by  seeding  rye  in  October,  corn  in 
April,  a  second  crop  of  corn  in  July,  and  rye  again  in 
October,  ^o  be  plowed  under  in  April,  This  rotation 
will  surprise  the  experimenter,  who  will  see  his  soil 
made  fertile,  friable,  and  in  general  vigor  far  beyond  its 
previous  condition,  all  due  to  the  valuable  component 
parts  of  the  vegetable  matter  plowed  under,  and  to  the 
absorption  and  retention  of  nitrogen  by  the  soil  conse- 
quent upon  the  extended  covering  of  the  surface.  From 
the  earliest  agricultural  records  green  manuring  has 
been  practiced,  and  whole  districts  of  country  in  Europe 
have  been  rendered  fertile  by  such  practice.  A  large 
district  in  Germany,  once  a  barren,  is  now  most  fertile, 
all  due  to  the  use  of  the  lupine,  which  plant,  however, 
does  not  offer  such  good  results  under  the  hot  sun  of  the 
American  climate. 


CHAPTER  V. 

STABLE    MANURE,    COMPOST   AND    COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZERS. 

Stable  manure  of  good  quality  cannot  be  obtained 
in  every  locality,  and  it  may  be  practical  to  consider, 
first,  how  poor  stable  manure  can  be  improved,  and, 
secondly,  how  a  poor  grade  may  be  mixed  with  other 
materials  to  form  a  compost.  Stable  manure,  in  its  gen- 
eral designation,  indicates  all  the  refuse  from  the  stall 
and  barnyard,  and,  consequently,  includes  good,  bad 
and  indifferent.  Of  course,  the  prominent  material  in 
stable  manure  is  straw  of  wheat,  rye,  oats  or  barley, 
with  smaller  proportions  of  hay  or  fodder — these  mixed 
with  the  droppings  and  urine  of  cattle.  The  quality 


36  MARKET   GARDENING. 

varies  with  the  proportion,  in  the  mass,  of  the  excretion 
of  animals.  Stable  manure  is  best  applied  when  well 
broken  up  by  fermentation.  If  not  decayed  but  in  long 
strawy  condition,  or  otherwise  green  condition,  it  should 
be  piled  till  fermentation  sets  in  to  reduce  it,  or  it 
should  be  composted. 

In  strong  fermented  stable  manure  there  is  often 
developed  an  immense  number  of  insect  larva,  the  rich 
mass  attracting  the  mature  insects,  in  which  they  lay 
their  eggs ;  which  dung  also  frequently  developes  many 
varieties  of  fungous  growth,  ready  to  effect  lodgment  on 
such  crops  as  may  be  naturally  fitted  for  their  further 
development.  The  best  stable  manure  is  that  exclu- 
sively from  the  stables  of  well  fed  horses,  as  such  is  com- 
posed only  of  hay,  straw,  urine  and  horse  dung,  digested 
and  half  digested  food  of  forage  and  grass,  the  richer  the 
food  given  to  the  horse  the  better  the  excrement.  This, 
as  taken  from  the  stalls,  is  known  as  fresh  manure,  and 
is  slow  in  fertilizing  action.  To  render  it  active  agri- 
culturally it  must  be  piled,  that  fermentation  may  pro- 
ceed to  break  down  the  component  parts  and  bring  them 
into  condition  to  afford  quick  nutrition  to  growing 
plants.  The  fresh  manure  is  suitable  for  application  in 
winter,  or  to  a  crop  requiring  a  slow  fertilization,  but  to 
spring  and  autumn  crops  in  the  garden  it  is  too  slow, 
consequently  if  we  use  stable  manure  to  develop  an  early 
effect  it  must  be  rotten,  or  short,  as  it  is  termed. 

The  value  of  stable  manure,  of  course,  varies  in 
every  locality.  Farmers  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
and  Delaware  pay  for  stable  manure  delivered  on  railroad 
cars  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles  out  from  the  city,  from 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  $2.00  per  ton  including 
freight.  The  cleanings  from  stalls  should  be  piled  as 
taken  out,  and  this  is  best  done  under  a  shed,  as  too 
frequent  rains  wash  out  a  portion  of  the  most  soluble 
ingredients,  though  a  limited  amount  of  water  must  be 


MANURE    AND  FERTILIZERS.  37 

present  in  the  pile  all  the  time  or  the  manure  will  burn 
or  grow  white  within  the  pile,  and  its  value  be  injured 
as  much  as  if  subjected  to  too  much  water ;  thus,  as  in 
all  things,  there  is  a  happy  medium.  Stable  manure  of 
indifferent  quality,  strawy,  not  rich  in  dung,  containing 
little  digested  or  half-digested  grain,  not  putrefactive, 
may  be  started  into  more  rapid  fermentation  by  densely 
piling  it,  and,  as  it  is  piled,  watering  it  with  a  ferment- 
ing solution. 

Fermenting  Lye. — The  solution,  or  lye,  may  be 
compared  to  horse  urine,  and  will  exert  the  same  effect 
in  starting  a  like  fermentation.  To  every  ton  of  crude 
stable  manure  apply  the  lye  as  the  manure  is  corded  up 
in  ten  inch  layers.  The  ingredients  necessary  to  make 
the  lye  to  test  a  ton  of  crude  stable  manure  need  not 
cost  more  than  one  dollar,  and  are :  Two  bushels  of 
pulverized  quicklime,  one  bushel  of  land  plaster,  one- 
fourth  bushel  of  common  refuse  salt,  three  pounds  of 
saltpeter,  three  pounds  of  muriatic  acid,  stirred  in  with 
three  barrels  of  rich  barnyard  water.  The  lye  can  be 
made  in  oil  or  whisky  barrels,  and,  after  making,  should 
stand  several  hours  before  application.  Barnyard  water, 
the  drainage  from  manure,  is  almost  as  important  as 
the  solid  parts,  as,  to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  a 
diluted  solution  of  urine,  the  very  agent  which  the 
preparation  is  intended  to  represent  in  its  action.  The 
larger  the  bulk  the  more  perfect  will  be  the  action 
of  the  lye. 

Compost.— Compost,  in  an  agricultural  sense,  is 
understood  to  be  a  compounded  manure  of  the  varied 
collections  of  the  garden,  as  crude  stable  manure,  swamp 
mud,  leaves,  weeds,  swamp  grass,  sea  grass,  old  sods, 
king  crabs,  jelly  fish,  fresh  or  salt  fish,  tobacco  stems, 
pumice  from  cider  mills,  waste  wool,  refuse  from  soap 
factories,  tallow  waste  from  slaughter  houses,  and  any 
vegetable  or  animal  product.  The  compost  pile,  if  made 


38  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

of  good  materials,  should  be  a  well  disintegrated  mass  of 
equal  quality,  throughout,  in  fertilizing  substances,  in 
ready  condition  for  quick  assimilation  by  plants.  The 
process  of  fermentation  and  disintegration  may  be  has- 
tened in  compost  piles  by  the  same  application  of  a  fer- 
menting solution  as  described  for  coarse  stable  manure. 
For  one  ton  of  compost  we  recommend  two  bushels 
of  powdered  quicklime,  one  bushel  of  land  plaster,  one- 
half  bushel  of  refuse  salt,  ten  pounds  of  saltpeter,  ten 
pounds  of  muriatic  acid,  all  mixed  in  three  barrels  of 
barnyard  water.  This  mixture,  costing  about  two  dol- 
lars and  a  half,  will  weigh  about  thirteen  hundred  pounds, 
and,  if  further  diluted,  as  would  be  advisable,  the  ton 
of  compost,  when  treated,  will  weigh  two  tons.  In  the 
application  of  the  lye,  the  compost  should  be  worked, 
and  packed  up  in  a  square,  round,  or  other  compact 
form,  applying  the  solution  to  every  layer  of  five  or  six 
inches,  that  the  lye  may  dampen  every  portion. 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS. 

A  commercial  fertilizer  is  an  article  of  concentrated 
strength,  and  adapted  to  transportation,  storage  and 
easy  application.  These  fertilizers  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes.  First,  articles  found  in  natural  deposits, 
as  Peruvian  guano  or  Chili  saltpeter.  Second,  articles 
resulting  from  a  manufacture  or  process,  as  fish  chum 
from  the  oil  works,  dried  blood  from  the  slaughter  house, 
graves  from  tallow  works,  or  odorless  phosphate  from 
the  basic  process  of  making  Bessemer  steel.  Third, 
compounded  materials,  those  requiring  manufacture,  as 
superphosphate,  and  the  various  combinations  of  potash 
and  soda.  While  commercial  manures  were  used  in 
England  fifty  years  ago,  they  did  not  become  common 
in  the  United  States  until  about  1844,  when  Peruvian 
guano  was  introduced,  and  this,  then  as  now  (more  so 
then  than  now),  was  a  complete  manure,  the  early  ship- 


MANURE  AND  FERTILIZEKS.  39 

f 

ments  sometimes  containing  as  much  nitrogen  as  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  also  a  large  percentage  of  potash. 

The  chief  merit  of  Peruvian  guano  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  accumulated  in  a  region  where  it 
never  rains,  as  upon  the  Chincha  Islands,  or  only  occa- 
sionally upon  the  Labos  Islands,  and  though  fifty  per 
cent,  of  Peruvian  guano  is  soluble  in  water  it  thus 
remained  intact,  and  did  so  remain  for  ages,  until 
the  deposits,  in  some  places,  accumulated  to  one  hundred 
feet  in  thickness,  the  droppings  from  birds,  and  other 
materials,  all  derived  from  the  weeds  and  fish  of  the  sea. 
There  are  other  bird  guanos  collected  from  various 
islands  in  other  seas,  but  having  been  subjected  to  rains, 
have  lost  most  of  their  nitrogen  and  potash,  the  phos- 
phoric acid  being  retained ;  these  have  been  termed 
phosphatic  guanos,  while  the  Chilian  grades  are  termed 
nitrogenous  guanos.  The  natural  sources  of  phosphoric 
acid  are  the  rock  phosphate,  extensively  used  by  the 
superphosphate  manufacturers,  large  quantities  being 
brought  from  the  island  of  Navassa,  near  St.  Domingo, 
and  from  the  South  Carolina  and  Florida  phosphate 
beds.  The  artificial  sources  of  supply  are  the  vast  plains 
of  South  America,  from  whence  have  been  collected  and 
exported  the  bones  of  innumerable  herds  of  cattle  slain 
for  their  hides,  and  millions  of  others  dying  from  nat- 
ural causes,  during  the  past  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

Potash,  used  commercially  as  a  fertilizer,  was  at  first 
derived  from  wood  ashes,  and  often  from  feldspar,  and 
the  supply  was  long  insufficient ;  but  about  1860  the 
salt  miners  of  Prussia  discovered  large  deposits  of  potash 
salts,  which  have  since  been  the  main  supply  for  the 
manufacture  of  fertilizers  the  world  over,  the  damaging 
chloride  of  magnesium  being  first  removed.  These 
Prussian  mines  are  vast  deposits  of  saline  matter,  evi- 
dently crystalized  out  of  sea  water.  Before  crude  salts 
can  be  advantageously  sold  and  transported  they  have  to 


40  MARKET  GARDENING. 

go  through  a  course  of  preparation  which,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  deposit  and  the  process,  develops  sul- 
phate of  potash  and  muriate  of  potash. 

Nitrogen,  as  an  article  of  commerce,  has  been 
obtained  in  large  quantities  from  Peru  and  Chili,  in  the 
form  of  Chili  saltpeter,  found  in  the  interior  of  those 
countries  in  vast  quantities,  sometimes  many  feet  in 
thickness.  As  much  as  four  million  tons  have  been 
exported  annually,  but  the  Peruvian  government  has 
now  reserved  these  deposits  for  domestic  use.  Of  course, 
there  are  other  sources  of  nitrogen,  especially  in  the  by- 
products of  manufactures,  for  example,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  from  gas  works.  Animal  nitrogen  is  largely 
obtained  from  fish  scrap,  of  which  sixty  thousand  tons 
are  annually  produced  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Of  course, 
the  raw  or  fresh  fish  will  furnish  this  same  ammonia. 
The  writer  has  plowed  under,  on  his  firm's  farms  in 
Lancaster  county,  Virginia,  from  seven  to  nine  millions 
of  fish  annually;  the  fish  being  menhaden,  a  species 
slightly  smaller  than  herring.  Cracklings  from  the  tal- 
low works,  dried  blood  and  tankage  from  slaughter 
houses,  are  valuable  sources  of  supply  for  agricultural 
nitrogen. 

By  the  introduction  of  commercial  fertilizers  farm 
operations  have  been  freed  from  the  restrictions  and 
limitations  imposed  by  the  deficient  sources  of  home- 
made manures,  and  the  intelligent  farmer  may  vastly 
extend  his  operations,  while  the  scientific  one  turns  his 
farm  into  a  factory,  where  he  endeavors,  sometimes,  with 
the  aid  of  climatic  influences,  and  sometimes  defeated 
by  such  influences,  to  manufacture  his  products. 

The  world-wide  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  has 
served  to  establish  a  standard  of  agricultural  value  of  all 
the  ingredients,  and  their  high  price  has  stimulated  the 
inquiring  gardener  to  a  closer  scrutiny  into  the  entire 
subject,  not  only  of  plant  nutrition,  but  as  respects 


SOWING   SEEDS.  41 

human  foods.  He  is  thus  lifted  above  the  laborious 
routine  of  digging,  plowing  and  harrowing,  and  becomes 
a  student  of  nature.  By  the  application  of  commercial 
manure  the  gardener  has  an  advantage  oyer  the  use  of 
stable  manure  in  the  avoidance  of  adding  to  the  stock  of 
weed  seed  natural  to  his  land,  stable  manure  always  con- 
taining more  or  less  seeds  of  grain  or  weeds.  The  use 
of  commercial  fertilizers,  on  the  other  hand,  while  rais- 
ing agriculture  to  a  higher  level  of  intellectual  thought, 
has  made  a  large  class  of  farmers  indifferent,  if,  indeed, 
not  strangers,  to  the  old  school  methods  of  farm  recu- 
peration, a  condition  much  to  be  regretted. 

Commercial  fertilizers  will  always  be  in  demand,  and 
much  of  the  success  of  our  agriculturists  depends  upon 
the  capital  and  talent  of  the  manufacture  of  such  ma- 
nures. A  fair  amount  of  confidence  can  be  placed  in 
well  made  fertilizers,  due  principally  to  the  enactment 
of  laws  by  several  of  the  State  legislatures  requiring  from 
manufacturers  sworn  statements  of  analysis,  and  also  to 
the  very  critical  investigations  and  comparisons  made  at 
the  various  State  experiment  stations. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SOWING  SEEDS. 

In  this  we  refer  to  the  sowing  or  planting  of  the 
seeds  of  vegetables  or  flowers  in  the  open  garden.  Every 
sane  man  knows  that  a  preparation  of  the  land  is  neces- 
sary, but  when  and  how  to  make  the  preparation  can 
only  be  learned  by  reading,  observation  or  experience. 
Experience  in  the  garden,  like  experience  in  all  matters 
of  life,  is  the  most  practical  teacher ;  when  and  how  to 
dig  or  plow,  when  to  harrow  or  rake,  to  clean  the 


42  MARKET  GARDENING. 

ground,  to  fertilize,  to  open  trenches,  or  cast  up  ridges, 
whether  to  drill  in  long  parallel  rows,  or  across  narrow 
beds,  all  of  which  operations  are  preliminary  to  the 
actual  operations  of  seeding.  The  practice  of  seeding 
differs  on  the  part  of  equally  capable  men  ;  the  conditions, 
the  quantity  to  be  grown,  and  whether  for  family  or 
market  garden,  leading  to  variations  in  processes. 

Much  disappointment  in  the  garden  often  results 
from  ignorant  practices,  as  from  unseasonable  sowing, 
as  from  too  deep  or  too  shallow  covering,  from  injudi- 
cious selection  of  varieties,  from  inefficient  thinning  out 
that  the  plants  may  have  room  to  properly  develop,  from 
want  of  preparatory  tillage  and  subsequent  cultivation. 
Of  course,  the  amount  of  seed  properly  sown  to  the  acre, 
or  to  the  row,  by  persons  of  equal  experience,  differs  as 
much  as  does  their  process  of  sowing  or  method  of  culti- 
vation. It  is  generally  considered,  however,  that  it  is 
unwise  to  spare  the  amount  of  seed,  as  the  difference  in 
cost  of  a  thick  seeding,  compared  with  a  thin  one, 
amounts  to  little  as  compared  with  the  disappointment, 
and,  still  greater,  the  loss  resulting  from  a  deficient  stand 
of  plants.  Ordinarily  the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  is 
said  to  be  so  many  bushels  or  so  many  pounds  to  the 
acre,  but  this  does  not,  by  any  means,  indicate  to  the 
gardener,  who  may  only  ha^ve  one  acre  on  which  to  plant 
all  his  crops,  the  amount  he  should  obtain  to  meet  his 
necessities.  It  is  better,  in  such  cases,  to  indicate  the 
quantity  of  seed  required  to  sow  one  hundred  yards  of 
continuous  rows,  as  the  gardener,  measuring  the  length 
of  the  rows  intended  to  be  devoted  to  various  kinds  of 
plants,  can  calculate  exactly  how  many  ounces  or  quarts 
he  should  procure.  Such  a  ready  table  for  reference 
will  be  found  in  the  following : 

SEEDS  REQUIRED  FOB  A  Row  ONE  HUNDRED  YARDS  LONG. 
One  ounce  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  collards,  broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts, 

egg-plant,  kale,   kohl-rabi,   pepper,  squash,   pumpkin,  tomato, 

turnip. 


SOWING   SEEDS.  43 

Two  ounces  of  onion,  leek,  lettuce,  endive,  parsley,  canteloupe. 

Three  ounces  of  carrot,  cress,  celery,  chervil,  water  melon,  parsnip, 

herbs. 

Four  ounces  of  cucumbers,  nasturtium,  rhubarb,  salsify,  scor/onera. 
Five  ounces  of  beet. 
Six  ounces  of  radish,  spinach. 
Eight  ounces  of  corn  salad. 
Twelve  ounces  of  okra,  asparagus. 
One  pint  of  field  corn. 
One  quart  of  sugar  corn. 
Three  quarts  of  bush  beans,  peas. 

In  a  country  of  such  diversity  of  soil  and  climate  as 
the  United  States,  it  is  difficult,  indeed,  impossible,  to 
advise,  except  in  a  very  general  way,  as  to  processes  of 
tillage,  seeding  and  culture.  With  sixteen  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  of  territory  north  and  south,  three  thousand 
five  hundred  miles  east  to  west,  a  surface  level  in  some 
places  with  the  sea,  in  others  four  to  eight  thousand  feet 
elevation,  some  districts  having  an  annual  rainfall  of 
ten  to  twenty  inches,  others  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
inches,  soils  differing  with  varying  geological  forma- 
tion on  two  thousand  millions  of  acres,  an  acreage  nearly 
equal  to  the  entire  continent  of  Europe. 

In  correspondence  the  writer  accordingly  adopts  the 
policy  of  advising  inquirers  to  observe  the  practice  of 
successful  gardeners  in  their  respective  localities,  and 
follow  that  system  as  a  far  safer  practice  than  anything 
he  can  advise  from  experience,  necessarily  limited  to 
the  Middle  States.  In  the  Northern  and  Middle  States 
the  average  season  for  open  air  seeding  may  be  indicated 
by  the  blooming  of  well  known  trees  and  shrubs,  though 
seeding  may  be  made  with  profit,  both  before  and  after 
such  periods,  as  it  is  a  safe  rule,  in  gardening,  to  divide 
the  risks.  For  instance,  when  the  peach  is  in  bloom 
sow  those  seeds  which  will  germinate  in  cold  soil,  resist 
slight  frost,  as  peas,  spinach,  onion  and  leek.  When 
the  oak  bursts  its  leaf  buds,  sow  beet,  carrot,  celery, 
lettuce,  parsnip,  radish,  salsify,  turnip,  tomato.  When 
the  llaclcberry  is  in  bloom  sow  those  seeds  which  will 


44  MARKET   GARDENING. 

thrive  only  in  warmer  soil,  as  the  bean,  corn,  cucumber, 
canteloupe.  watermelon,  pumpkin,  squash,  okra. 

No  occupation  of  business,  no  occupation  of  pleas- 
ure, affords  so  much  for  interesting  study,  as  the  growth 
and  treatment  of  vegetables,  and  the  study  of  their  soils, 
their  fertilizers  and  tillage.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  those  who  would  avoid  labor  should  leave 
gardening  alone,  because  it  is  a  perpetual  combat  with 
enemies,  rain,  drouth,  frost,  heat,  weeds,  insects,  and 
the  unexpected  from  every  quarter. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
GERMINATION. 

The  process  of  germination  may  be  said  to  cover 
that  period  of  time  from  the  moment  of  planting  the 
dry  seed  to  the  appearance  of  the  new  plant,  and  con- 
tinuously on  till  the  young  plant,  exhausting  the  food 
stored  in  the  mother  seed,  is  capable  of  sustaining  itself 
by  attachment  to  the  soil.  Very  few  garden  seeds  will 
start  at  a  lower  temperature  than  50°,  many  requiring  a 
warmth  of  70°.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much  heat 
dries  up  the  germ,  few  kinds  resisting  a  temperature 
above  120°.  The  moist,  rapid  germination  of  seeds  in 
general  is  at  a  temperature  from  70°  to  90°.  Under  low 
temperature  root  growth  is  very  slow,  while  under  high 
temperature  the  development  of  roots  is  far  in  excess  of 
a  counter-balancing  leaf  development. 

Moisture  is  indispensable  to  germination,  but  the 
amount  most  favorable  varies  with  different  plants ;  for 
instance,  son^a  seeds  will  only  start  when  in  water.  Gar- 
den seeds  will  do  best  when  the  land  is  moist,  but  not 
wet ;  too  much  moisture  causes  decay ;  and  they 


GERMINATION.  45 

maybe  divided  into  two  classes,  as  respects  their  ger- 
mination, viz.  :  Cold  soil  and  warm  soil  seeds,  the  first 
class  comprising  peas,  onions,  lettuce,  radish  and  spin- 
ach ;  the  second  class  includes  the  greater  number, 
sprouting  freely  by  the  aid  of  much  solar  or  artificial  heat. 

Time  for  Germination. — The  time  required  in 
germination  greatly  varies,  dependent  upon  the  species 
of  plant,  the  age  of  the  seed  and  the  surrounding  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  atmosphere.  Under  favorable  circum- 
stances, peas,  beans  and  corn  should  sprout  in  three 
days ;  cabbage,  turnip  and  radish  in  four  days ;  vine 
seeds,  such  as  melon,  squash  and  cucumber,  in  five  or 
six  days.  Germination,  however,  does  not  guarantee 
vegetation,  as  seeds  showing  a  germ  may  never  appear 
above  ground  if  physically  weak,  if  too  deeply  covered, 
or  if  the  soil  is  hardened  by  rain  or  heat.  As  a  rule,  the 
depth  for  covering  seeds  should  be  three  to  four  times 
their  diameter. 

Rapid  Growth  Desirable.— The  great  principle 
conducive  to  quick,  healthy  germination  and  rapid  veg- 
etation is  a  fine  seed  bed  and  good  tillage.  A  rapid 
growth  of  garden  plants  is  much  to  be  desired,  as  they 
then  outstrip  the  weeds,  and,  to  a  degree,  get  beyond 
such  dangers  as  floods,  grubs  and  insects,  which  play 
havoc  with  young  seedlings,  especially  those  of  delicate 
structure.  Healthy,  uniform  germination  requires 
warmth,  moisture,  and  air,  as  climatic  accessories  to  a 
finely  pulverized  soil,  which  preserves  the  moisture 
longer  than  rough  land.  Seeds,  on  the  other  hand,  sown 
amid  clods  and  crevices,  are,  many  of  them,  lost  by  depth 
of  covering,  while  the  rough  surface  of  such  land  quickly 
bakes  and  cracks  and  offers  shelter  to  annoying  vermin. 

Vitality  of  Seeds. — The  time  during  which  vege- 
table seeds  retain  their  vitality  is  very  variable,  depend- 
ent, first,  upon  their  chemical  composition ;  second, 
upon  the  climatic  condition  under  which  they  were  har- 


46  MARKET   GARDENING. 

vested  ;  third,  upon  the  greater  or  lesser  moisture  of  the 
air  in  which  they  are  stored ;  and,  fourth,  upon  proper 
ventilation  of  the  bags  or  packages.  On  the  southern 
seaboard,  and  in  the  Gulf  States,  where  the  air  is  very 
moist,  at  times,  perfectly  fresh  seeds  frequently  lose 
their  vitality  by  the  end  of  the  first  year,  while  far  inland 
and  in  dry  sections  of  the  country,  and  especially  in 
high  latitudes,  they  may,  with  few  exceptions,  be  safely 
used  the  second  season.  The  primary  cause,  however, 
of  difference  in  period  of  duration  of  the  growing  powers 
of  seed,  depends  principally  upon  difference  in  their 
chemical  composition. 

All  seed  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those  in 
which  oil  predominates,  those  in  which  starch  predom- 
inates ;  and  it  is  the  first  which  most  rapidly  change  by 
decomposition,  the  starchy  seeds,  with  the  exception  of 
corn,  being  least  subject  to  chemical  change  and  most 
tenacious  of  life. 

Testing  Seeds.— When  it  is  desired  to  determine 
the  vitality  of  a  seed,  the  test  should  always  be  made  by 
counting  out  lots  of  one  hundred  seeds,  just  as  they  are, 
good,  bad  and  indifferent ;  better  still,  to  take  several 
lots  of  one  hundred  seeds  of  each  variety,  that  one  lot 
may  serve  to  prove  the  other.  In  all  such  cases  the 
experimenter  should  have  a  sample  of  another  lot  of  the 
same  variety  of  seed  from  a  distinct  source,  of  which  he 
already  knows  the  true  vitality,  this  to  serve  as  a  proof 
or  standard  in  estimating  the  accuracy  of  the  test.  The 
test  of  vitality  may  be  made  in  a  number  of  ways,  the 
most  reliable,  of  course,  being  in  earth  ;  sandy  loam  in 
broad  pots  or  trays,  well  placed  as  respects  heat  and 
moisture,  or,  better  still,  the  seed  sown  in  earth  on  the 
benches  of  a  greenhouse. 

A  second  method  of  testing  geeds  is  by  germinating 
them  in  flannel  cloths  suspended  over  water  trays,  from 
which  the  flannel  becomes  damp  by  capillary  attraction. 


GERMINATION.  47 

By  this  process,  excepting  for  egg  plant,  pepper,  and 
such  other  seeds  as  require  heat,  a  higher  test  can  be 
made  than  by  the  earth  test,  but  the  flannel  test  is  decep- 
tive, as  many  seeds  will  start  and  show  a  sprout,  while 
unable  to  make  further  growth  for  want  of  vital  force. 
Such  seeds,  under  the  flannel  test,  are  counted  as  good, 
while  under  the  earth  test  they  never  would  be  counted, 
as  they  never  would  appear  above  the  surface,  being  too 
weak  to  force  their  way  through  the  soil. 

A  test  of  somewhat  similar  character  to  the  flannel 
test  can  be  made  by  placing  the  seeds  between  two  bats 
of  cotton,  each  one  inch  thick  and  three  to  four  inches 
wide,  kept  constantly  wet  and  near  a  stove,  or  in  the  sun, 
that  the  water  may  not  become  cold.  Seeds  of  the  oily 
class,  as  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  turnips,  should  have, 
when  first  harvested,  if  gathered  under  dry  conditions, 
and  if  well  cleaned,  an  average  vitality. of  eighty  to 
ninety-five  per  cent.  The  second  year  the  percentage 
falls  to  seventy  and  eighty  per  cent;  the  third  year  to 
sixty  and  seventy  per  cent.,  and  so  on  in  a  declining 
scale  to  nothing  after  seven  or  eight  years. 

Carrot,  parsley,  spinach,  or  parsnip  seeds  are  much 
affected  by  harvest  conditions,  and  as  respects  cleaning 
or  the  separation  of  the  good  from  the  bad,  after  thresh- 
ing. The  first  year  they  grow  from  seventy  to  eighty 
per  cent.,  the  second  year  fall  to  fifty  and  sixty  per  cent., 
the  third  year  forty  to  thirty  per  cent.,  and  the  fourth 
year  may  be  considered  valueless. 

Cucumber,  canteloupe,  squash,  pumpkin  and  water- 
melon require  cautious  harvesting  and  washing  to  pre- 
vent sprouting  during  the  process,  and,  when  well 
washed  and  dried,  have  a  vitality  the  first  year  of  eighty 
to  ninety  per  cent.,  the  second  year  seventy  to  seventy- 
five  per  cent.,  the  third  year  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent., 
decreasing  over  a  period  of  five  or  six  years. 

Pepper,  egg  plant  and  okra  seed  are  especially  weak 
in  vital  force,  seldom  showing  over  seventy  per  cent,  of 


48  MARKET    GARDENING. 

germination  the  first  year,  and  often  not  half  that  the 
second,  and  sometimes  less.  Beet  seed  containing  from 
three  to  five  germs  to  the  single  capsule  will  often 
develop  three  hundred  shoots  to  a  hundred  seeds,  but 
after  a  period  of  four  years  the  percentage  of  vitality 
will  fall  to  twenty-five  per  cent.,  though  the  writer  has 
now  growing  a  ten  acre  crop  from  a  lot  of  select  seed  of 
Bassano  beet  eight  years  old.  American  grown  onion 
and  leek  seed  varies  from  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent,  in 
vitality  the  first  year,  falling  to  about  sixty  the  second 
year  and  thirty  the  third.  These  seeds  of  English  and 
French  growth,  when  brought  to  the  United  States,  sel- 
dom have  a  vitality  of  two-thirds  of  the  percentage  of  the 
American.  Frequently  the  best  English  leek  seed  can- 
not be  found  to  show  over  twenty-five  per  cent.  Radish, 
if  of  American  growth,  should  have  a  vitality  of  ninety 
to  ninety-five  per  cent,  the  first  year,  and  will  diminish 
ten  per  cent,  for  four  or  five  years.  Of  European  growth 
it  seldom  has  over  seventy  per  cent,  vitality  the  first 
year,  ofttimes  not  more  than  fifty  per  cent.,  and  the 
second  year  frequently  falling  to  twenty-five  per  cent., 
and  sometimes  less,  by  reason  of  the  conditions  of  exces- 
sive moisture  under  which  it  is  harvested  and  cured, 
and  the  moisture  absorbed  during  the  ocean  voyage. 

Lettuce,  endive,  celery  and  tomato  being  seeds  dif- 
ficult in  the  separation  after  threshing  of  the  good  from 
the  bad,  seldom  have  a  vitality  of  over  eighty  per  cent. 
Lettuce  and  endive,  however,  are  very  retentive  of  ger- 
minating quality,  falling  not  more  than  ten  per  cent, 
per  annum,  annually,  for  three  or  four  years,  after  which 
they  decline  rapidly  to  nothing,  celery  and  tomato  being 
least  vital. 

Peas,  well  riddled  and  hand  picked,  should  have  a 
vitality  the  first  year,  if  harvested  in  dry  weather,  of 
ninety-five  per  cent.,  the  second  year  eighty  per  cent., 
the  third  year  sixty  per  cent.,  after  which  they  will 


GERMINATION.  49 

deteriorate  so  rapidly  as  to  be  of  no  value.  Beans  are 
much  more  liable  to  injury  than  peas,  ripening  during 
later  and  less  favorable  weather  for  drying,  and  encased 
in  more  succulent  pods.  Wax  pod  beans  are  especially 
delicate,  but  when  harvested  under  good  conditions  and 
hand  picked,  should  have  a  vitality  of  ninety  to  ninety- 
five  per  cent.  They,  however,  deteriorate  rapidly,  to 
eighty  per  cent,  the  second  year,  to  sixty  per  cent,  the 
third,  and  the  fourth  to  twenty  per  cent. 

Corn  varies  greatly  in  germinating  force,  the  flint 
varieties  being  the  most  vital,  the  dent  sorts,  the  gourd 
seed  sorts  and  the  sugar  varieties  following  in  the  order 
named.  Hard,  flinty  corn,  grown  under  good  condi- 
tions, and  well  cured,  should  germinate  the  first  year  to 
the  extent  of  ninety  per  cent.,  the  second  year  to  eighty 
per  cent.,  and  the  third  year  to  fifty  per  cent.  Sugar 
corns,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very  delicate,  their  vitality 
being  affected  by  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
matured,  husked,  cured  and  packed,  and,  even  after 
seeming  hard  and  dry,  they  often  become  damp  if  kept 
in  bulk  or  in  bags  piled  up.  So  delicate  are  sugar  corns 
that  they  should  never  be  continuously  kept  in  bags  or 
sacks  till  the  January  following  the  harvest,  and  often 
not  that  early. 

There  are  unauthenticated  records  of  mummy  corn 
from  South  America  having  germinated,  but  the  writer 
doubts  the  accuracy  of  the  statements.  He  has  an  ear 
of  mummy  corn  from  Peru,  said  to  be  seven  hundred 
years  old,  but  it  is  entirely  dead,  having  been  subjected, 
as  all  other  mummy  corn  has  been,  to  the  heating  effects 
of  hot  pitch  and  similar  mixtures  used  in  embalming. 
The  claim,  that  corn  of  vital  force  has  been  found  in  the 
Egyptian  tombs  is  positively  false,  as  small  grain  was 
found.  Maize  was  entirely  unknown  on  the  Eastern  con- 
tinents before  the  discovery  of  America.  Credulous  tour- 
ists visiting  the  Nile  regions  can  always  be  accommodated, 
4 


50  MAKKET   GAKDENING. 

by  obliging  native  guides,  with  maize  said  to  be  from  the 
tombs,  but  it  is  of  recent  growth. 

In  making  comparisons  of  the  vitality  of  vegetable 
seeds,  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  English, 
French  and  German  seeds  are  never  as  vital  as  American, 
consequent  upon  the  excessive  humidity  of  the  seed- 
growing  regions  abroad  and  the  injurious  effects  of  a  sea 
voyage.  The  European  crops  are  never  ripened  in  the 
field  as  thoroughly  as  the  American,  and  before  and  after 
threshing  are  never  in  as  bone-dry  condition  as  crops 
ripened  under  semi-tropical  heat ;  consequently  Eu- 
ropean seeds  do  not  sprout  as  quickly,  do  not  develop 
the  same  large  percentage  of  vitality,  and  do  not  hold 
what  they  have  so  well  as  seeds  of  American  growth. 
A  low  percentage  of  vitality,  either  of  European  or 
American  seeds,  does  not  necessarily  indicate  age,  but, 
frequently,  that  the  seed  was  matured  under  unfavorable 
circumstances,  conditions  beyond  the  power  of  the  seed 
grower  to  avoid.  No  seed  grower  could  undertake  to 
guarantee  the  vitality  of  the  seed  sold  by  him,  for  he 
cannot  control  the  conditions  of  the  sowing  as  respects 
nature  of  soil,  preparation  of  seed  bed,  previous  condi- 
tion, present  manuring,  time  and  manner  of  seeding, 
immunity  from  fleas  and  larvae  at  time  of  sprouting, 
conditions  of  moisture  and  temperature.  The  seedsman 
who  guaranteed  his  seed  would  either  be  a  fool  or  a 
knave. 

While  vitality  is  of  much  importance,  it  is  less  so 
than  purity.  An  apparent  want  of  vitality  is  often 
wholly  due  to  some  unfavorable  condition,  as  one  planter 
frequently  succeeds  while  another .  fails  with  the  seed 
out  of  the  same  bag.  Again,  a  low  vitality  of  a  newly 
harvested  seed,  the  result  of  climatic  conditions,  is  a 
matter  beyond  human  control,  and,  occasionally,  seed  of 
such  defective  vitality  has  to  be  accepted  by  both  seed 
grower,  merchant  and  planter.  Not  so  with  impurity ; 


TEA^SPLAKTIKG.  51 

for  if  seed  prove  unvital  a  new  purchase  can  be  made, 
and  a  new  planting  follow  within  a  few  days;  but  im- 
pure seed  is  more  deceptive,  as  its  very  vigor  secures  the 
crop,  attention  and  labor  to  be  subsequently  found 
wasted.  Of  the  two  evils,  unvital  seed  or  impure  seed, 
the  first,  by  all  odds,  is  the  least. 


CHAPTEK    VIII. 

TRAKSPLAKTI^G. 

Many  seeds  of  garden  vegetables,  and  of  nearly  all 
garden  flowers,  are  first  sown  in  beds,  to  be  afterwards 
transplanted  to  permanent  positions,  with  the  object, 

First : — That  by  their  concentration  more  thorough 
attention  can  be  given  them  as  respects  preparation  of 
seed  bed. 

Second : — Because  the  space  in  which  they  ulti- 
mately stand  may  be  occupied  by  an  immature  crop. 

Third  : — That  delicate  plants  might  be  lost  if  sown 
in  permanent  positions  and  subjected  to  the  attacks  of 
insects,  or  overgrown  by  weeds. 

Fourth : — To  save  labor,  as  one  thousand  small 
plants  in  a  bed  can  be  cared  for  at  one-tenth  the  cost  of 
time  and  money  as  the  same  number  in  open  ground. 

Fifth  : — To  induce  productiveness,  as  plants  set  out 
from  beds  to  the  open  ground  are  checked  in  their  vigor 
of  leaf  growth  and  a  clearly  indicated  disposition  devel- 
oped, in  the  direction  of  blooming  and  early  maturity. 
The  beds  in  which  delicate,  slow  growing  vegetable 
plants  are  grown  may  be  hotbeds,  intermediate  beds, 
cold  frames  or  out  door  border  beds,  but  from  all  or  any 
of  them  the  plants  must  be  moved  with  equal  care,  for 
transplanting  is  an  operation  so  delicate  as  not  only  to 


52  MARKET   GARDEK1KG. 

determine  whether  a  crop  be  secured  or  not,  but  to  grade 
the  productiveness  and  time  of  maturity.  Beets,  car- 
rots, parsnips,  radish,  turnip  and  all  other  fleshy  tap- 
rooted  plants  are  best  grown  on  permanent  positions, 
as  they  do  not  transplant  well,  but  many  fibrous-rooted 
plants,  as  cabbage,  tomato,  egg  plant,  pepper,  lettuce, 
are  most  safely  started  in  beds,  and  really  do  best  after 
transplanting,  as  they  then  are  afterward  more  deeply  set 
in  the  soil  and  start  off  upon  fresh  tilled  land  as  well  as 
while  growing  in  the  bed,  giving  the  gardener  ample 
time  to  make  all  desirable  arrangements  for  transplant- 
ing, while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  sowed  the  seed  in 
permanent  position  at  the  same  early  date  he  might  fail 
to  secure  good  plants. 

The  process  of  transplantation  should  be  performed 
on  soils  properly  tilled  ;  that  is,  thoroughly  plowed  or 
dug,  harrowed  or  raked,  and  marked  off  in  rows  at 
proper  intervals  for  hand  hoeing,  or  wider  for  horse  cul- 
tivation. While  transplantation  by  thoroughly  experi- 
enced persons  can  sometimes  be  done  under  unfavorable 
conditions  of  soil,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  only  safely  undertaken 
when  the  soil  is  damp  or  wet,  when  the  rain  is  falling, 
or  the  air  charged  with  moisture,  otherwise  the  plants 
may  succumb  under  hot  sun  or  drying  winds. 

In  setting  the  plants  in  the  row,  space  should  always 
be  allowed  between  them  greater  than  the  extreme  diam- 
eter of  the  fully  developed  plant.  For  instance,  if  a 
certain  variety  of  cabbage  will  produce  a  head  and  out- 
side leaves  of  a  space  of  fifteen  inches,  then  that  variety 
of  plant  should  be  set  at  eighteen  inches ;  or  if  one  vari- 
ety of  lettuce  plant  grows  twelve  inches  in  diameter  and 
another  variety  only  five  inches,  they  should  be  set 
accordingly. 

In  taking  plants  from  seed  beds  they  should  not  be 
pulled  up,  to  the  destruction  of  the  rootlets,  but  lifted 
with  a  trowel  or  similar  tool,  and  when  out  of  the  ground 


TRANSPLANTING.  53 

should  be  protected  from  sun  or  air,  as  either  influence 
will  dry  up  those  tender  fibers  upon  which  depend  its 
earlier  or  later  connection  with  the  soil.  The  coarse 
roots  may  be  looked  upon  as  so  many  anchors ;  they 
do  not  sustain  the  life  of  the  plant.  The  plants  dug 
from  the  seed  beds  and  properly  protected,  the  next 
operation  is  to  set  them,  which  may  be  done  with  a 
dibble  or  trowel.  The  dibble  is  a  long,  pointed,  cone- 
shaped  tool,  which,  from  its  form  and  rotary  motion 
when  used,  generally  smooths  the  sides  of  the  hole,  both 
bad  features,  while  a  trowel  is  a  digging  implement, 
leaving  the  soil  mellow. 

The  plants  should  be  set  deeper  than  they  origin- 
ally stood,  but  as  a  rule,  not  deeper  than  the  points  of 
attachment  of  the  lower  leaves.  None  of  the  root  fibers 
should  point  upward,  be  all  turned  downward,  and  the 
more  widely  spread  the  better.  The  soil  should  be 
pressed  down  with  the  hand  or  foot  after  the  plant  is 
set,  that  the  earth  and  rootlets  may  be  brought  into 
intimate  contact,  otherwise  the  time  required  to  bring- 
about  this  contact  is  so  much  lost  time.  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  hoe  a  transplanted  crop  just  as  soon  as  the 
plants  recover  from  the  setting,  as  hoeing  mellows  the 
soil  and  has  a  vitalizing  effect. 

Mulching. — In  small  gardens  the  practice  of  mulch- 
ing after  transplanting  is  often  pursued  with  marked 
advantage.  This  operation  is  the  covering  of  the  soil 
around  freshly  set  plants,  vines,  shrubs  and  trees,  with 
three  to  four  inches  in  depth  of  litter  of  any  kind,  long 
manure,  dry  hay,  dried  leaves,  green  grass  from  the 
lawn,  green  weeds  from  the  field  or  garden,  any  of  them 
preventing,  during  dry  weather,  excessive  evaporation 
from  the  soil. 

Crops  well  mulched  are  comparatively  free  from 
weeds,  and  such  as  do  push  themselves  through  it  can 
easily  be  pulled  up,  while  the  moist,  mellow  condition 


54  MARKET   GARDENING. 

of  the  soil  under  a  mulch  renders  ordinary  cultivation 
unnecessary.  Every  cultivator  not  familiar  with  the 
merits  of  mulching  should  make  some  experiments,  the 
material  always  being  cheap,  indeed,  often  in  the  way, 
and  presenting  a  problem  as  to  its  disposition. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SUCCESSION,    OR  THE   ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 

The  gardener,  whether  an  expert  or  amateur,  must, 
like  a  general  in  the  field,  have  a  plan  of  operations 
upon  which  to  conduct  the  campaign  of  the  summer, 
and,  while  the  expert  may  not  commit  his  plan  to  paper, 
the  amateur  certainly  should,  otherwise  he  will  more 
than  double  the  number  of  the  errors  which  he  is  sure 
to  commit,  plan  he  ever  so  well. 

Gardening,  it  is  true,  is  often  successfully  pursued 
by  seemingly  ignorant  men,  and  they  truly  may  be 
ignorant  of  literature  and  polite  accomplishments,  but 
they  are,  nevertheless,  specialists,  and  if  successful  oper- 
ators in  the  advanced  system  of  gardening,  may  prove 
themselves  to  have  acquired  a  technical  knowledge  which 
is  as  much  a  profession  as  any  other  occupation  which 
develops  looked  for  results. 

The  amateur  has  everything  to  learn,  and  must 
commit  his  plans  to  paper,  or  he  will  be  certain  to  run 
everything  into  disorder,  and,  before  the  season  is  well 
started  be  disposed  to  give  up  in  despair  of  ever  getting 
things  into  order  by  strawberry  time.  With  a  clear, 
systematically  managed  garden,  his  is  the  envy  of  all 
neighbors,  while  with  a  weedy  and  clearly  unprofitable 
one  he  sets  such  a  bad  example  that  it  would  have  been 
better  he  had  not  attempted  anything.  The  gardener 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  55 

must  do  a  little  engineering,  he  must  have  a  plan  of  his 
garden  drawn  to  a  scale,  say  one-third  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot,  and  on  three  distinct  sheets  lay  out  the  plans  for 
spring,  summer  and  autumn.  As  to  the  nature  of  these 
plans,  the  reader  may  get  some  hints  from  observation 
of  the  practice  of  good  market  gardeners  in  his  vicinity 
or  elsewhere.  Now,  presupposing  that  the  spring  plant- 
ing of  the  private  gardener  comprises  every  thing  season- 
able, the  question  naturally  arises  what  shall  he  sow  as 
a  succession  to  his  spring  planting ;  for  be  it  clearly  un- 
derstood, it  is  only  by  keeping  up  in  the  garden  a  never 
ceasing  course  of  sowing  of  seed,  gathering  of  matured 
crops,  and  re-sowing  on  the  same  ground,  without  any 
waste  of  time,  that  the  garden  can  be  practically  made 
to  pay  its  cost  in  dollars  and  cents.  With  a  less  intense 
system  of  administration  and  culture  it  may  pay  well, 
in  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  contemplation  of  rural 
subjects  and  in  increased  health  consequent  upon  inter- 
esting and  moderate  outdoor  labor,  but  unless  the  course 
of  rotation  is  well  thought  out  and  practically  put  into 
effect  each  fruit  or  vegetable  will  cost  double  its  price 
in  the  stores.  Of  course  the  climatic  location  has  every- 
thing to  do  with  the  policy  adopted,  as  in  the  Gulf 
States  the  practice  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the 
Carolinas,  and  in  the  Carolinas  equally  distinct  from 
that  of  the  corn  and  wheat  growing  districts  of  the  East 
and  West.  In  fact,  in  each  section  of  each  State  dis- 
tinct policies  are  pursued  as  to  periods  of  sowing,  and  as 
to  choice  of  varieties. 

As  an  aid  to  the  amateur  in  the  Middle  and  West- 
ern States  we  will  say  that  peas  may  be  followed  by  cab- 
bage for  early  autumn  use,  also  by  beans,  tomato  and 
celery  plants.  Onions  by  kale,  turnip  and  winter  rad- 
ishes. Spring  spinach  by  beans  and  tomatoes.  Spring 
radishes  by  cabbage,  for  early  autumn  use.  Lettuce  by 
beans  and  tomatoes.  Beans  by  kale,  turnip,  winter  rad- 


56  MARKET   GARDENING. 

ishes,  autumn  lettuce  and  celery.  Early  carrots  by 
autumn  spinach,  kale,  turnips,  winter  radishes.  Sum- 
mer squash  by  kale,  turnip,  winter  radishes.  Cucumber 
by  autumn  spinach,  turnip  and  winter  radishes.  Early 
beets  by  spinach,  kale,  turnips  and  winter  radishes. 
Early  sugar  corn  by  a  second  crop  of  the  same  kind  or 
by  autumn  spinach,  beans,  tomatoes,  celery. 

There  are  some  late  maturing  varieties  of  garden 
plants  which  seldom  afford  the  cultivator  an  opportunity 
to  sow  anything  else  as  a  succession  ;  among  these  are 
late  sugar  corns,  parsley,  parsnip,  leek,  pumpkin,  mel- 
ons, winter  squarsh,  tomatoes,  okra  and  peppers. 

THINNING  OUT. 

It  takes  a  determined  conviction  of  necessity  to  thin 
out  young  plants  in  the  vegetable  or  flower  garden.,  that 
they  may  have  full  space  to  properly  extend  their  growth. 
Among  vegetables  of  large  leaf  development,  as  cabbage, 
lettuce,  spinach  and  parsley,  the  space  necessary  for 
growth  without  crowding,  may  be  found  by  marking 
round  the  plant  a  circle  on  the  ground  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  a  fully  developed  specimen,  and  those  plants 
with  large  roots,  such  as  beets,  radish  and  turnip,  must 
be  allowed  room  in  proportion  to  their  usual  size. 

Do  not  hesitate  to  thin  out,  no  matter  how  sturdy 
and  attractive  the  plants  may  be,  for  the  plant  which 
crowds  another  is  simply  a  weed.  This  thinning  should 
be  done  before  the  plants  be  drawn  or  elongated  in  their 
stems  or  leaves,  or  they  will  ever  afterward  show  the 
injurious  effects  of  crowding.  It  may  be  done  by  cut- 
ting out  with  a  hoe  or  knife  of  those  plants  which  are 
not  needed  elsewhere,  or,  if  considered  worth  transplant- 
ing, they  should  be  carefully  dug  up,  that  the  finer  roots 
be  preserved.  No  vegetable  or  flower  will  properly 
develop  if  crowded ;  certainly  one  symmetrical  plant  is 
worth  a  dozen  sickly  ones,  not  only  for  market,  but 
in  effect. 


CHAPTER  X. 
GARDEK  INSECTS. 

Owing  to  the  depredations  of  sparrows,  blackbirds, 
chickens,  and  other  feathery  thieves,  moles  and  mice 
underground,  squirrels,  woodchucks,  cats  and  dogs 
above  ground,  the  painstaking  gardener  will  find  many  of 
his  labors  frustrated  by  an  innumerable  host  of  enemies 
coming  and  going  throughout  the  season.  Among  these 
may  be  included  slugs,  grubs,  cutworms,  caterpillars, 
sap  suckers,  plant  lice,  the  larva  of  day  butterflies  and 
night  moths  in  various  stages  of  transformation.  Some 
seasons  they  all  appear  to  be  present  and  combine  in  an 
attack  to  defeat  every  operation  of  the  gardener.  At 
other  times  they  most  graciously  absent  themselves; 
but  the  gardener  is  never  without  a  sufficient  number  to 
keep  him  well  on  the  defensive. 

Insecticides. — The  subject  of  insecticides  and  traps 
is  one  to  which  is  now  given  much  attention,  and 
country  stores  in  every  district  are  all  well  supplied 
with  preparations  and  apparatus  without  number,  all 
offered  as  the  best,  however  poor. 

An  unscientific  description  of  a  few  of  the  common 
destructive  insects  in  the  garden,  with  suggested  reme- 
dies for  destroying  them,  may  not  be  out  of  place. 
Insect  preventives  may  be  said  to  be  of  two  forms  of 
application  :  Steeps,  in  which  the  seed,  before  sowing,  is 
soaked,  and  dressings,  with  which  the  plants  are  covered. 
These  may  again  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  Repellants, 
as  gasoline,  tar,  kerosene,  sulphur  powder,  which  act  by 
overcoming  the  natural  odor  of  plants  attractive  to  cer- 

57 


58  MARKET   GARDENING. 

tain  insects,  and  poisons,  generally  arsenical  compounds, 
applied  with  the  direct  intent  of  killing  the  insect  eating 
the  foliage. 

In  nothing  is  the  saying  that  "An  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  more  exemplified  than 
in  the  advantage  derived  from  destroying  flying  insects 
before  they  deposit  their  eggs.  Every  one  living  in  the 
country  is  familiar  with  the  habit  of  night  moths  and 
bugs  to  fly  into  lamps  or  other  lights,  and  that  the  incli- 
nation has  been  used  as  a  means  of  inviting  them  to 
destruction  by  night  flres  on  the  borders  of  the  garden, 
or  by  placing  in  the  midst  of  the  garden  a  large  tub  of 
water,  over  the  center  of  which  is  placed  a  square  lantern 
against  which  the  insects  fly  violently  and  are  precipi- 
tated into  the  water. 

Asparagus  Beetle. — The  asparagus  beetle,  often 
called  the  asparagus  fly,  is  an  oblong,  hard-bodied,  quick 
motioned  insect,  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length, 
its  head  black,  its  thorax  tawny  red,  and  wing-covers 
blue-black,  ornamented  with  six  small  yellow  spots, 
appearing  in  large  numbers  during  the  season  of  aspara- 
gus cutting ;  the  soft  larvae,  or  slugs,  are  most  ravenous 
destroyers  of  the  cuticle  or  outer  bark  of  stems,  twigs 
and  leaves  of  the  asparagus  plant,  attacking  it  from  the 
first  peeping  sprout  in  early  spring  till  the  plant  has 
reached  its  full  development.  These  insects,  maturing 
early,  develop  a  new  brood  in  August.  Nothing  can  be 
done  to  destroy  the  asparagus  beetle  upon  the  market- 
able shoots,  as  mineral  poisons  would  be  destructive  to 
human  life,  and  offensive  applications  would  destroy 
the  value  of  the  crop. 

On  beds  not  old  enough  for  cutting,  and  on  beds 
past  prime  condition,  mineral  poisons  may  be  used,  and 
none  have  been  found  better  than  Paris  green,  mixed 
with  forty  parts  of  flour.  Sometimes  the  beetles  appear 
in  such  numbers  and  are  so  voracious  that  asparagus 


GARDEN   INSECTS.  59 

shoots  for  market  require  to  be  cut  when  just  peeping 
through  the  ground,  otherwise  in  a  day  nothing  would 
remain  to  be  collected. 

Asparagus  beds  past  the  marketable  condition  of 
growth  can  be  dressed  advantageously  with  a  solution  of 
a  tablespoonful  of  Paris  green  in  four  gallons  of  water, 
which  will  be  generally  found  to  kill  the  slugs.  Some- 
times effective  results  ensue  by  the  application  of  freshly 
slaked  lime  while  the  dew  is  on  them,  for  the  least  par- 
ticle of  lime  touching  the  skin  of  a  slug  is  certain  to 
kill  it. 

White  Grub. — The  white  grub  is  the  larvas  of  the 
familiar  June  bug,  or,  more  correctly,  May  beetle,  which, 
in  the  early  spring  months,  enters  dwellings  in  the  even- 
ing, swarming  about  the  lights,  buzzing  loudly  and  vio- 
lently, knocking  themselves  against  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ings. The  perfect  insect  feeds  upon  the  foliage  of  trees, 
and  is  more  or  less  destructive.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
in  the  earth,  and  hatch  in  about  a  month.  The  grubs 
remain  in  the  ground,  doing  little  injury  till  the  second 
summer,  when  they  attack  the  roots  of  plants.  They 
remain  as  grubs  in  the  earth  for  nearly  three  years,  by 
which  time  they  reach  a  length  of  two  inches,  and  often 
appear  in  such  great  numbers  as  to  do  immense  damage. 
The  body  of  the  grub  is  soft  and  of  a  dirty  white,  and 
its  head  is  of  red  and  brown,  and  its  habit,  like  the  cut 
worm,  is  to  coil  into  a  ball  when  disturbed.  Like  other 
grubs,  they  are  difficult  to  poison,  the  best  plan  being 
to  endeavor  to  destroy  the  beetles  in  early  spring.  This 
worm  is  eaten  by  skunks,  coons,  moles  and  birds.  Dogs 
can  be  trained  to  eat  it,  and  when  so  trained  will  follow 
a  plow  all  day  long. 

Wire  Worm. — The  wire  worm  is  a  long,  yellow, 
slender-bodied  grub,  with  exceedingly  hard  and  tough 
skin.  These  worms  destroy  the  seed  and  young  plants 
of  squash,  pumpkin,  melon,  and  often  potatoes.  They 


60  MARKET    GARDENING. 

are  the  grubs  of  snap-beetles,  brown-black  insects  which, 
when  laid  over  on  their  backs,  have  the  singular  power 
of  snapping  and  springing  violently  to  their  feet.  The 
writer  has  frequently  seen  grains  of  corn  a  week  after 
planting,  bored  out  to  a  shell,  and  containing  as  many 
as  a  dozen  worms  ravenously  finishing  the  remainder  of 
the  grain. 

Cut  Worm. — Cut  worms  are  the  larvae  of  various 
species  of  night  moths  which  deposit  their  eggs  late  in 
the  summer.  When  hatched,  the  worms  enter  the 
ground  and  remain  in  a  torpid  state  all  winter.  In  the 
spring  they  appear  as  naked,  greasy,  smooth  caterpillars, 
ravenously  attacking  the  seed,  roots  and  stems  of  almost 
any  young  vegetable,  and  when  disturbed,  coiling 
quickly  into  a  ball.  The  best  method  of  killing  them 
is  to  catch  them  by  digging.  They  are  sometimes 
destroyed  by  Paris  green  sprinkled  on  small  bunches  of 
freshly  cut  grass  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  where 
the  worms  are  known  to  be.  White  hellebore  has  been 
found  effective  in  the  destruction  of  this  pest. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — The  Colorado  potato 
beetle  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  best  recognized  of  insect 
pests,  being  large  in  size,  and  found  in  every  locality. 
Its  favorite  foods  are  the  leaves  of  the  potato,  tomato 
and  egg  plant.  But  it  is  readily  destroyed  with  Paris 
green. 

Squash  Beetle. — The  striped  squash  beetle,  prey- 
ing upon  cucumbers  and  melons,  is  an  insect  a  little 
over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  black  and  yellow 
jacket  bearing  three  parallel  black  bands.  The  full 
grown  beetle  appears  in  the  middle  of  spring,  just  in 
time  to  catch  the  plants  as  they  sprout,  eating  the  young 
leaves  as  they  develop,  so  that  the  gardener  almost  gives 
up  in  despair  of  ever  securing  plants  with  too  well  devel- 
oped leaves,  at  which  stage  they  are  usually  considered 
proof  against  the  beetles  ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case, 


GAEDEN   INSECTS.  61 

for  in  some  seasons  plants  of  squash,  cucumber,  melons, 
pumpkin,  having  six  or  seven  leaves  large  as  a  man's 
hand,  are  completely  eaten  off  in  a  single  day.  Appli- 
cations of  Paris  green,  land  plaster,  slaked  lime,  must 
all  be  so  applied  as  to  reach  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  as 
well  as  the  top. 

In  gardens  an  effective  way  to  keep  off  the  mature 
flying  beetles  is  to  cover  the  seed  hills  at  once,  after 
planting,  with  square  or  circular  frames,  covered  with 
mosquito  netting,  that  the  young  plants  may  be  protected 
from  the  beetles.  The  gardener  may  conclude  he  has 
conquered,  but  not  so  always,  for  the  eggs  of  the  same 
beetle,  deposited  in  the  earth,  now  hatched  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  develop  larvae,  a  little  white  worm,  which, 
commencing  at  the  vines  under  ground,  pierce  the  stems 
through  and  through,  to  their  utter  destruction,  and  to 
the  gardener's  dismay.  We  recommend  Hammond's 
slug  shot  to  destroy  the  first  brood  of  beetles  which  ap- 
pears. This  done,  no  larvae  will  follow. 

On  Eeedland  Farm  the  Landreths,  cultivating  large 
breadths  of  watermelons  and  cantelonpes,  always  have 
to  replant,  more  or  less,  on  account  of  the  ravages  of 
this  troublesome  insect,  sometimes  replanting  five  or  six 
times,  using  an  aggregate  of  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  the 
seed  to  the  acre  before  obtaining  a  complete  growth,  a 
very  expensive  process,  increased  cost  of  labor,  of  seed, 
and  the  risk  of  a  delayed  crop.  On  large  areas  the  best 
remedy  against  this  pest  is  slug  shot,  or  Paris  green, 
mixed  with  forty  parts  of  land  plaster  or  flour,  and  ap- 
plied as  often  as  it  is  washed  off.  Experiments  made 
at  Bloomsdale  Farm  have  conclusively  shown  that 
various  vine  plants  have  different  degrees  of  resistance 
to  the  noxious  effects  of  Paris  green,  squashes  being  the 
strongest,  pumpkins  next,  then  cucumber,  water  melons 
and  canteloupes  least  of  all. 

As  the  French  wine  growers  kill  the  phylloxera 
insect  feeding  on  the  roots  of  the  grape  by  the  poisonous 


62  MARKET   GARDEKIXG. 

fumes  of  carbon  bi-sulphide  injected  into  the  earth,  why 
should  not  this  same  application  destroy  the  white  grub, 
wire  and  cut  worm,  squash  beetle,  and  others  ?  A  spoon- 
ful of  the  liquid,  injected  by  a  syringe  about  the  roots  of 
the  plants  to  be  protected,  might  work  wonders. 

The  Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug. — The  harlequin 
cabbage  bug  is  a  very  demon  among  garden  pests,  the 
perfect  insect  one-half  inch  long,  somewhat  resembling 
in  shape  a  terrapin,  having  a  hard  shell  brilliantly  spot- 
ted. It  is  a  sap  sucker,  puncturing  the  stalks  and  leaves 
of  cabbage  and  other  plants  of  the  cabbage  family,  suck- 
ing'out  the  sap  and  poisoning  the  entire  plant.  Turkeys 
and  chickens  decline  to  eat  them,  poison  will  not  kill 
them,  as  they  do  not  eat  solid  matter;  they  must  be 
picked  off  by  hand.  This  Mexican  insect  has  repeatedly 
presented  itself  to  the  observation  of  the  writer  in  such 
innumerable  numbers  as  to  obtain  for  itself  a  record  of 
first  place  among  destructive  bugs.  It  is  particularly 
fond  of  cabbage  and  turnip,  attacking  both  in  autumn 
and  spring,  and  is  especially  destructive  on  those  plants 
when  shooting  to  seed.  His  firm  has  lost,  on  several 
occasions,  sixty  to  seventy  acres  of  cabbage,  and  still 
more  of  ruta  bagas,  even  after  weeks  of  labor  and  efforts 
to  remove  the  bugs  by  hand  picking ;  all  being  insuffi- 
cient to  check  their  numbers,  and  no  poisonous  applica- 
tion being  effectual  in  checking  their  voracity.  The 
most  reliable  method  of  meeting  the  ravages  of  this  bug 
is  to  destroy  the  first  brood  at  any  cost,  even  of  the  crop 
itself. 

Cabbage  Worm. — The  cabbage  worm  is  a  green 
caterpillar,  feeding  on  nearly  all  broad-leaved  vegetables, 
especially  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  lettuce.  It  is  the 
larvae  of  a  white  butterfly  of  European  origin ;  Paris 
green  will  poison  these  caterpillars,  but,  except  in  the 
very  early  stages  of  cabbage  growth,  it  is  unsafe  to  apply 
so  poisonous  an  article  to  a  plant  which  might  enfold 


GAKDEE    INSECTS.  63 

the  poisonous  compound  within  its  leaves  and  kill  those 
who  afterwards  ate  the  plant.  Pyrethrum  has  been 
found  excellent  as  a  destroyer,  but  probably  Hammond's 
slug  shot  is  as  effective.  Sometimes  good  results  follow 
the  application  of  white  hellebore  mixed  with  land  plas- 
ter, four  parts  to  one.  In  other  cases  a  solution  of  one 
quart  of  powdered  alum  to  twelve  quarts  of  boiling 
water  is  effective.  Sometimes  good  effects  result  from 
an  application  of  a  tablespoonful  of  pyrethrum  mixed  in 
two  gallons  of  water,  and  applied  forcibly  with  a  spray 
syringe.  The  writer's  experience  with  the  cabbage  worm 
dates  from  the  period  of  its  southern  raid  from  Canada, 
where  it  was  first  established  as  an  emigrant  from 
Europe.  He  has  had  annoyance  from  it  in  variable 
degrees  every  year,  but  never  to  that  serious  extent  as 
reported  from  localities  where  it  has  occasionally  de- 
stroyed entire  crops  of  cabbage. 

Cabbage  Louse. — The  Downy  cabbage  louse  is  a 
mealy,  soft-bodied  insect,  sometimes  appearing  in  thou- 
sands, swarming  like  bees  upon  the  leaves  of  young  cab- 
bage, Brussels  sprouts  and  cauliflower.  It  can  be  driven 
off  by  application  of  Hammond's  slug  shot.  Personal 
experience  should  always  enable  one  to  express  opinions 
on  a  subject,  and  the  writer,  having  had  years  of  com- 
bat with  this  pknt  louse,  looks  upon  it  as  a  pest  to  be 
dreaded,  difficult  to  kill,  and  destructive  in  its  work. 
He  has  seen,  upon  the  seed  farm  of  his  firm,  as  much 
as  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  otherwise  healthy  tur- 
nip plants,  and  one  hundred  acres  of  cabbage  in  the 
seed  producing  condition,  entirely  destroyed  within 
three  weeks.  It  is  especially  fond  of  the  tender  seed 
stems  of  the  ruta  baga,  and  in  nearly  all  seed-growing 
districts  where  ruta  baga  seed-growing  has  been  pursued 
twenty  years,  the  cultivation  has  ceased  entirely  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  increase  of  this  insect.  On  young  tur- 
nips the  louse  can  be  destroyed  by  dusting  with  Paris 


C4  MARKET   GARDENING. 

green,  hellebore  and  slug  shot,  but  as  the  insect  enters 
the  most  intricate  folds  of  the  leaves  of  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower and  Brussels  sprouts,  the  poisonous  applications 
cannot  be  used.  An  effective  remedy,  on  small  garden 
plots,  is  kerosene,  emulsion,  made  as  follows  :  One  part 
sour  milk,  two  parts  kerosene,  thoroughly  mixed  by 
rapid  agitation  till  the  combination  forms  a  creamy 
liquid.  To  this  add  fourteen  parts  water,  and  apply  by 
an  injector,  or  dash  over  the  vines  with  a  broom ;  or 
the  emulsion  may  be  made  with  :  One  quart  soft  soap, 
one  quart  kerosene,  two  quarts  water  mixed  by  forcible 
agitation,  and  diluted  with  sixteen  quarts  of  water 
applied  forcibly  with  a  syringe. 

Onion  Fly, — The  grub  of  this  insect  attacks  the 
bulbs  of  onions,  the  tops  of  which  grow  yellow  and  soon 
die.  There  is  no  stopping  its  ravages,  but  prompt  action 
should  be  taken  to  destroy  the  larvae,  as  a  preventive 
against  a  like  attack  the  succeeding  year.  All  sickly 
onions  should  be  removed  and  burned,  and  from  four  to 
eight  bushels  of  salt  applied  to  the  acre. 

Turnip  Fly. — The  turnip  fly,  or  flea  beetle,  is  a 
jumping  insect  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, feeding  on  lettuce,  radish,  turnip  and  cabbage,  as 
soon  as  they  break  through  the  ground,  often  destroying 
an  entire  crop,  acres  in  extent,  before  the  planter 
knows  the  seed  has  sprouted.  Equal  parts  of  wood  ashes 
and  land  plaster  dusted  very  thoroughly  on  the  young 
plants  will  generally  drive  them  off.  An  application  of 
some  efficiency  is,  one  part  of  Paris  green,  mixed  with 
forty  or  fifty  parts  of  land  plaster  or  flour.  Some  of  the 
State  legislatures  have  very  admirably  passed  laws  mak- 
ing it  obligatory  on  farmers  to  destroy  the  Canada  this- 
tle, and  other  weeds  dangerous  to  the  interests  of  agri- 
culture. No  less  caution  should  be  observed  with 
respect  to  certain  insects,  as,  for  instance,  the  potato 
beetle,  multiplying  by  hundreds  of  thousands  on  the 


DISEASES   OF   GARDEN    VEGETABLES.  65 

land  of  a  slovenly  farmer,  infests  the  entire  district  next 
year,  no  matter  how  diligently  other  farmers  apply 
themselves  to  its  eradication. 

Insects  attacking  garden  plants  may,  in  a  slight 
degree,  compensate  for  their  injuries,  by  the  agreeable 
study  they  afford  to  one  of  an  investigating  turn  of 
mind.  The  eggs  can  be  gathered  and  hatched  under 
glass,  or,  better,  under  wire  gauze,  and  the  larvae  of 
many  species  observed  passing  through  the  various 
transformations  to  the  fully  developed  winged  insect. 
Flying  insects  can  be  caught  in  a  scoop  net  placed  on 
the  end  of  a  pole,  and,  when  caught,  can  be  killed  by  suf- 
focation by  the  fumes  of  ammonia,  or,  more  promptly, 
by  chloroform  or  ether.  Beetles  can  be  killed  by  fumes 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  corked  bottle,  but  this  is- 
recommended  cautiously,  as  its  fumes  are  a  deadly  poison. 


CHAPTER  XL 

DISEASES  OF  GARDEN  VEGETABLES. 

However  much  insect  depredations  may  be  dreaded 
by  the  gardener,  he,  at  least,  has  some  recourse  against 
the  grubs,  worms,  snails,  caterpillars  and  bugs,  by  de- 
stroying them  after  some  trouble,  or  by  holding  them  in 
check  by  poisonous  applications,  so  as  finally  to  secure  a 
crop.  Not  so,  however,  with  fungous  growths,  which, 
intimately  connected  with  the  structure  and  circulation 
of  the  host  plant,  cannot  always  be  destroyed  by  solu- 
tions poisonous  to  vegetable  growth,  for,  with  the  fun- 
gus, the  supporting  plant  may  suffer  equally  with  the 
parasite. 

The  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York  has  set  a 
good  example  by  the  passage  of  a  law  authorizing  the 
5 


66  MARKET   GARDENING. 

officers  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society  to  enter  upon 
farm  lands  of  citizens  of  that  State,  where  new  or  dan- 
gerous parasitic  plants  are  found  upon  vines,  or  other 
plants,  and  to  destroy  the  crops  by  fire,  the  State  assum- 
ing the  loss  to  the  farmers. 

The  reader  of  this  little  volume  may  conclude  that 
the  author  has  adopted  a  singular  method  of  promoting 
amateur  gardening,  by  presenting  to  the  beginner  all 
the  evils  which  can  possibly  occur  to  crush  the  ardor 
and  forestall  the  labors  of  the  young  gardener.  Not  sat- 
isfied with  dwelling  on  insect  pests  infesting  gardens,  he 
must  here  present  a  dissertation  on  diseases. 

The  observing  man  already  knows  that  all  vegetable 
life,  like  the  animal,  is  subject  to  disease  and  decay. 
He  has  seen  strong  forest  trees  with  lifeless  branches, 
and  fruit  trees,  as  the  peach  and  pear,  cease  to  be  pro- 
ductive. Garden  vegetables  of  weaker  development  can- 
not be  expected  to  be  exempt,  and  a  very  brief  survey  of 
the  prevalent  diseases  of  a  few  varieties  of  field  and  gar- 
den plants  may  be  instructive,  and  lead  to  such  subse- 
quent critical  observation  as  may  be  of  profit ;  as,  for 
many  of  the  diseases  of  vegetables,  there  are  treatments 
which  may  be  termed  preventive,  palliative  or  curative, 
and  their  proper  use  may,  in  time,  reduce  what  is  now  a 
serious  loss  in  garden  products. 

Many  of  the  diseases  are  the  result  of  unclean  soil, 
which,  like  an  unclean  house,  is  a  hotbed  of  infection ; 
some  are  of  a  foreign  origin,  brought  to  this  country 
with  seeds  and  plants,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  certain 
people,  flourishing  with  double  vigor  under  new  condi- 
tions of  life.  Other  diseases,  again,  of  American  origin, 
are  carried,  like  certain  insects,  from  one  region  to 
another  by  our  transportation  lines ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  which  has  flourished  for 
hundreds  of  years  in  Colorado  and  on  the  plains  of  Ari- 
zona, and  southward  into  Mexico,  but  it  never  escaped 


DISEASES    OF    GARDEN   VEGETABLES.  67 

from  its  natural  habitat  till  our  cultivated  frontier 
reached  its  home,  and  then  it  spread  East  and  North  by 
easy  stages  on  the  potato  fields. 

Potato-Vine  Fungus. — The  potato  is  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  several  parasitic  fungi,  two  or  more  of 
which  attack  clover  and  lettuce,  appearing  as  patches  of 
white  film,  which,  in  a  few  weeks,  spread  over  the  entire 
plant,  extract  the  juice  and  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  plant 
so  that  growth  of  tubers  ceases.  There  is  no  remedy  for 
this  disease,  and  to  prevent  its  spread  exceedingly  great 
caution  has  to  be  observed  in  burning  all  the  stems  of 
the  infected  crop.  To  dress  the  land  with  lime  and  to 
cease  to  raise  potatoes  on  the  same  ground  for  two  years 
is  the  best  system  to  pursue.  A  second  fungus  growth 
to  which  the  potato  is  subject  also  attacks  tomato  and  egg 
plants,  on  each  of  which  it  is  equally  injurious.  It  ap- 
pears about  midsummer,  and  flourishes  most  vigorously 
during  close  humid  weather.  It  is  first  seen  as  a 
fine  white  bloom,  accompanied  by  darker  spots  on  the 
leaves.  It  is  to  be  found  mainly  beneath  the  leaves, 
and  if  the  temperature  continues  moist  it  rapidly  dis- 
tributes itself  over  the  entire  plant,  the  darker  spots, 
increasing  in  number  and  size,  indicating  the  presence 
of  mycelium  within  the  tissues  soon  ready  to  develop  a 
white  material  on  the  surface.  An  offensive  odor  is  an 
accompaniment  of  this  disease.  The  fungus,  under  con- 
ditions favorable  to  its  growth,  develops  rapidly,  some- 
times appearing  and  destroying  a  crop  in  two  days,  but 
always  the  germs  of  disease  have  been  present  before- 
hand, possibly  for  weeks.  The  stems  of  the  entire  crop 
should  be  burned,  the  laud  should  be  limed,  and  any 
succeeding  crop  planted  with  seed  from  a  district  not 
infected  with  the  fungus,  and  the  crop  planted  wide 
apart  between  rows  to  admit  of  a  thorough  circulation 
of  air. 

Cabbage  Fungus. — Club-root  in  cabbage  is  a 
name  applied  to  the  outward  results  which  appear  on 


68  MARKET    GARDENING. 

cabbage,  turnips,  mangels,  carrots,  as  a  distortion  and 
enlargement,  in  spindle  form,  of  the  main  root  stem  and 
rootlets,  occasionally  to  ten  times  the  normal  size  of  the 
roots.  This  ugly  growth  is  due  to  the  attack  of  a  fungus 
which  usually  fastens  itself  upon  the  plant  at  an  early 
stage,  and  when  once  present  remains  permanently. 
The  spores  seem  to  form  a  connecting  link  between  the 
vegetable  and  the  animal  kingdom,  for  though  entirely 
vegetable,  they  have  tail-like  appendages  which,  by 
vibration^  cause  the  spores  to  move  over  wet  surfaces  in 
quite  a  life-like  manner.  Cabbage  with  club-root — and 
no  one  can  mistake  the  disease — should  at  once  be  burned, 
and  no  attempt  made  upon  that  land  to  grow  cabbage 
for  at  least  a  year. 

Pea  Fungus. — A  fungus  attacking  peas,  espe- 
cially late  varieties,  or  early  ones  sown  late,  and  known 
as  pea  mildew,  is  developed  by  decaying  material  of  weeds 
or  rubbish,  and  is  for  warded,  especially,  under  conditions 
of  moisture  and  heat.  When  a  crop  is  once  attacked 
there  is  little  hope  of  arresting  its  ravages,  and  the  best 
course  is  to  pull  up  the  plants  and  use  the  ground  for 
something  else. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture,  used  to  destroy  fungus 
growths,  as  scab  and  mildew  on  grapes,  apples,  pears, 
and  other  fruits  of  hard  wooded  plants,  is  valuable  also 
in  the  treatment  of  garden  vegetables  and  flowers  suffer- 
ing from  fungus.  To  make  the  mixture,  take  four 
pounds  fresh  unslaked  lime,  six  pounds  copper  sulphate 
powdered,  forty-five  gallons  of  water,  or  in  same  pro- 
portion ;  slack  the  lime,  making  a  creamy  mixture.  Pour 
into  a  barrel,  straining  it  through  a  sack.  Fill  up  with 
water  and  stir.  The  mixture  will  cost  about  one  cent 
per  gallon. 

The  mixture  must  be  applied  in  the  form  of  fine 
spray,  applied  with  force  by  an  effective  pump  or  syringe. 
For  fruits  it  will  be  safe  to  make  four  sprayings. 


HEREDITY   IK    PLANTS.  69 

1st.  Just  as  the  flowers  are  opening.  3d.  Ten  days  later, 
and  so  on  at  intervals  of  ten  days.  Sometimes  six  or 
seven  sprayings  are  beneficial. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
HEREDITY  IK  PLANTS. 

Breeders  of  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep  and  swine, 
acknowledge  that  merit  or  demerit  is  inherited,  and  it  is 
the  same  with  plants ;  they  can  be  improved  by  selection 
and  cross  breeding,  as  the  sexes  are  almost  as  distinctly 
developed  in  vegetables  and  flowers  as  in  animals,  and, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  present  themselves  to  our  notice 
in  three  forms,  viz.  : 

Sexes  in  Plants. — First — Bi-sexual,  in  which  both 
sexes  are  present  as  part  of  the  flower,  as  seen  in  the 
fully  developed  pistil  and  stamens  of  the  apple  and  pear, 
the  cabbage  and  radish. 

Second — Monoecious,  in  which  the  sexes  are  found 
in  distinct  flowers  produced  by  the  same  plant,  as  in 
corn,  melon,  cucumber,  squash. 

Third — Dioecious,  in  which  the  sexes  are  borne  on 
distinct  plants,  as  asparagus  and  spinach. 

Remote  Parents  of  Cultivated  Varieties. — The 
cabbage  grower  of  to-day  would  scarcely  recognize,  in 
the  coarse  wild  cabbage  of  the  seashore  of  Denmark,  the 
parent  of  our  improved  varieties ;  nor  the  celery  lover 
the  bitter  plant,  as  found  in  its  native  habitats;  nor 
the  epicure  in  watermelons  the  bitter,  indigenous  melons 
found  covering  whole  districts  in  Africa.  The  present 
development  in  plants  is  the  result  of  heredity  in  selected 
specimens.  The  original  individuals  of  every  garden 
vegetable  and  every  garden  flower  were  caught,  tamed 


70  MARKET   GARDENING. 

and  improved  through  cultivation  and  selection,  cover- 
ing longer  or  shorter  periods  of  time.  The  same  work 
of  selection  and  improvement  of  good  qualities  in  vege- 
tables is  yet  going  on,  and  more  earnestly  than  ever 
before.  The  seed  grower  of  to-day  is  doing  the  work, 
the  only  fear  is  he  is  going  too  fast,  introducing  many 
variations  of  little  merit,  rather  than  devoting  himself 
to  the  selection  and  preparation  of  varieties  of  suitable 
quality. 

Selection  of  Varieties. — Were  it  not  for  hered- 
ity the  seed  growers'  labors  would  be  in  vain,  but,  fortu- 
nately, the  man  who  finds  a  good  thing  in  the  green- 
house, flower  garden,  vegetable  garden,  or  in  the  field, 
can  seize  upon  it,  and,  by  the  aid  of  heredity,  fix,  after 
a  time,  its  valuable  qualities  for  the  benefit  of  all.  But 
it  may  be  well  to  say  he  meets  with  many  instances  of 
curious  reversion  to  original  types. 

Change  of  Seed. — It  is  quite  possible  to  grow  the 
same  crop  on  the  same  land  for  successive  years,  but  it 
is  a  ruinous  policy.  We  own  a  plantation  in  Virginia, 
upon  a  field  of  which,  it  is  said,  corn  was  grown  succes- 
sively and  uninterruptedly  for  ninety  years,  but  the  pro- 
duct had  fallen  to  ten  bushels  per  acre.  The  avoid- 
ance of  such  a  course  of  seeding  is  known  as  the  system 
of  rotation  of  crops,  that  is,  such  an  alternation  of  seeding 
as  to  complete  define  a  cycle  of  cropping  in  a  term  of 
years.  Now,  no  less  important  is  a  rotation  in  the  seed 
itself.  The  vegetable  gardener  generally  purchases  his 
seeds  from  various  sources,  but  the  grain  farmer  some- 
times blindly  adheres  to  his  own  stock  of  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  till  it  has  lost  its  original  character,  and  run  down 
in  productiveness  for  want  of  healthy  stamina. 

Much  is  gained,  then,  by  a  change  of  seed  of  any 
family  of  plants,  by  seed  grown  on  a  different  soil ;  and 
we  urge  our  readers  to  make  trial  every  year  of  a  limited 
quantity,  be  it  only  a  few  papers,  or  pounds,  of  old  or 


HEREDITY    IN   PLANTS.  71 

new  varieties  from  localities  different  from  their  own  in 
soil  and  climatic  conditions.  Many  fungus  growths  in 
cultivated  plants  are  superinduced  by  a  weak  physical 
development,  so  that  everything  points  to  the  advantage 
of  a  change  of  stock  if  a  cultivator  wants  to  make  either 
a  reputation  in  the  community  for  good  crops  or  a  profit 
on  his  product. 

The  gardener  cannot  change  the  climate  of  a  local- 
ity, but  he  can  transport  plants  from  one  end  of  the 
earth  to  the  other  and,  subjecting  them  to  new  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  soil,  thus  bringing  about  a  variability 
which,  by  selection  and  continued  culture,  can  be  per- 
petuated, the  new  quality  becoming  hereditary.  This 
process  of  selection  has  given  us  our  best  types  of  vege- 
tables and  flowers. 

Man  can  do  little  to  cause  variability,  but  he  can 
seize  upon  good  forms  when  they  do  appear,  and,  by 
annual  selection  in  fixed  lines,  secure  important  results. 
No  doubt  the  edible  plants  of  the  older  forms  have  been 
handed  down  from  days  of  barbarism,  when  man  was 
forced,  at  times,  by  hunger  to  eat  almost  anything  he 
could  swallow,  but  their  qualities  have  been  improved. 

At  this  day  we  can  hardly  believe  that  the  wild 
species  of  carrot,  parsnip  and  cabbage  were  the  progeni- 
tors of  our  cultivated  varieties.  Several  years  ago  the 
wild  carrot  of  the  fields  was  experimented  with  at  Blooms- 
dale  Farm,  and,  after  seven  years  of  high  culture  "and 
careful  selection,  it  had  developed  a  root  quite  soft,  juicy 
and  palatable.  The  writer  has  grown  quite  good-sized 
and  fairly  edible  tubers,  after  five  years  of  cultivation, 
from  the  wild  potato  of  Mexico. 

The  work  of  selection  and  the  results  of  heredity  is 
in  no  plant  so  clearly  shown  as  in  the  cabbage,  every 
one  of  the  two  hundred,  or  more,  forms  being  developed 
from  one  original, — the  wild  plant  of  the  sea  coast  .of 
western  Europe,  now  developed  into  plants  of  many  dif- 


72  MARKET   GARDENING. 

ferent  characters,  as  kale,  when  the  terminal  and  lateral 
leaf  buds  are  active  and  open ;  as  Brussels  sprouts,  when 
each  leaf  bud  forms  a  head ;  as  cabbage,  when  the  ter- 
minal leaf  bud  alone  is  active,  forming  one  head ;  as 
cauliflower,  when  the  terminal  flower  bud  is  checked, 
producing  a  mass  of  succulent,  edible,  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  abortive  flowers. 

The  occasional  appearance  of  the  so-called  pod  corn, 
otherwise  primitive  corn,  developing  among  cultivated 
species,  may  be  the  result  of  heredity,  as  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible the  original  maize  was  of  this  character,  every 
grain  being  covered  by  a  distinct  husk.  But  it  is  in  the 
" melon  family"  that  the  greatest  variations  occur;  pos- 
sibly there  are  four  thousand  varieties  known,  compris- 
ing great  variability  in  size,  form  and  color  of  vine, 
and  color,  shape  and  size  of  fruit  and  form  of  seed,  one 
variety  being  two  thousanJ  times  larger  than  another. 
Nearly  all  of  this  family  will  interbreed  ;  the  canteloupe 
and  cucumber  have  been  hybridized  on  Bloomsdale 
Farm  and  grown  there  for  several  years  as  an  interest- 
freak  of  nature. 

While  heredity  is  a  well  marked  principle  in  vege- 
table life,  there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  depart  from 
established  forms,  sometimes  for  the  better,  of tener  for 
the  worse,  for  reversion  is  generally  downward  in  the 
scale  of  excellence.  The  reversion  may  be  in  the  form 
of  a  wild  sport,  or  a  distinct  reproduction  from  a  late  or 
a  very  remote  ancestor. 

Every  experienced  seed  grower  knows  that  the 
purest  crops  will  sometimes  develop  the  wildest  sports,  for 
instance,  a  crop  of  cabbage  of  apparently  absolute  purity 
may  produce  a  few  plants  like  collards,  the  result  alone 
of  reversion.  The  seed  grower  is  powerless  to  prevent 
this  natural  physiological  freak,  and  the  gardener  who 
knows  anything  of  seed  production  and  vegetable  varia- 
bility deals  more  rationally  with  the  seedsman  than  he 


SAVING   SEED.  73 

who  knows  nothing  of  such  matters,  but  thinks  nature 
should  produce  plants  all  as  much  alike  as  nickels  from 
the  mint. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 
SAVING  SEED. 

Gardening  at  the  present  day  is  quite  distinct  from 
that  of  the  past,  for,  while  it  has  been,  from  ancient 
times,  termed  an  art,  it  may  now,  in  its  advanced  condi- 
tion, be  termed  an  art  supported,  explained  and  digni- 
fied by  nearly  every  science,  all  being  called  upon  to 
account  for  the  natural  phenomena  of  plant  germination, 
vegetation  and  maturity. 

Though  very  few  market  gardeners  are  scientific 
men,  still,  the  progressive  one  nowadays  gives  consider- 
able thought  to  matters  truly  scientific.  For  instance, 
the  chemical  results  affecting  plant  development  through 
the  application  of  salts,  of  potash,  soda,  and  other  chem- 
ical substances  used  as  fertilizers,  upon  soils  of  sedi- 
mentary, drift,  or  alluvial  formation.  For  example,  green 
sand  marly  soils,  requiring  distinct  applications  from 
soils  of  decayed  red  sandstone,  and  again,  scientific,  as 
respects  botanical  and  physiological  differences,  plant 
subsistence,  pollination,  reversion,  etc. 

Systematic  results,  as  affects  species,  can  now  gen- 
erally be  accounted  for  by  the  thoroughly  intelligent 
student  of  plant  life  and  culture,  and  if  system  is  pretty 
well  assured  and  the  causes  of  such  results  fairly  under- 
stood, gardening  is  on  the  direct  road  to  become  a  sci- 
ence, and  is  certeiin  to  be  so  classed  by  the  end  of  the 
century,  though  of  course,  in  its  higher  walks,  having 
but  few  practitioners  amid  the  nations  of  the  earth. 


74  MARKET   GARDENING. 

Few  farmers  or  gardeners  have  the  patience,  the 
inclination  or  the  training,  to  be  close  observers  of  the 
habits  of  plants  under  different  climates  and  soils,  fre- 
quently so  modified  as  to  appear  in  new  forms,  the  mod- 
ifications covering  all  the  results  of  pollination  and 
selection ;  consequently  those  who  have  acquired  this 
habit  of  observation  are  marked  men  in  their  respective 
communities. 

The  variations  in  cultivated  plants,  due  to  the  fancy 
or  caprice  of  the  seed  grower,  is  not  the  only  difficulty 
experienced  by  the  purchaser  of  seeds  who  desires  par- 
ticular qualities  ;  but  equally  difficult  is  the  identification 
of  fruits,  flowers  and  vegetables  under  the  various  names 
by  which  they  are  sold,  some  particular  varieties  having 
a  dozen  names  in  as  many  locations,  indeed,  as  many  in 
the  same  locality.  Of  course,  this  can  only  be  corrected 
by  the  natural  determination  among  seed  growers  and  seed 
merchants  to  refrain  from  the  manufacture  of  names  to 
advance  the  sale  of  their  stocks  in  hand,  but  this  is  not 
likely  to  be  soon  realized,  as  there  is  no  court  or  author- 
itative bodies  to  forbid  the  multiplication  of  names. 
Nevertheless,  an  effort  is  now  being  made  to  have  estab- 
lished by  Congress  a  national  plant  register,  which,  it  is 
designed,  shall  give  the  description  and  history  of  every 
newly  introduced  fruit,  vegetable,  grain,  flower  or  fiber, 
the  record  being  official  and  authoritative.  The  bill, 
however,  if  passed,  will  not  prevent  Tom,  Dick  or  Harry 
from  introducing  a  plant  by  whatever  name,  good  or 
bad,  old  or  new,  and  the  utmost  that  can  be  expected  is 
that  honest  originators  will  register  their  introductions, 
and  even  some  of  these  may  not,  through  studied  pur- 
pose or  caprice. 

In  England  an  official  record  has  been  kept  for  years 
by  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  which  issues  certifi- 
cates to  the  exhibitors,  for  the  first  time,  of  new  plants 
of  merit.  The  introducers  of  good  plants  thus  get  a 


SAVING   SEEb.  75 

society  notice,  which  is  generally  copied  in  all  the  agri- 
cultural or  horticultural  journals,  but  the  plant  is  very 
likely  to  appear  the  next  year  under  a  half  dozen  new 
names,  though  of  course  it  can  never  again  be  registered. 
However,  this  renaming  does  not  prevent  it  from  being 
sold  at  very  high  prices,  for  the  more  extravagant  the 
name  and  the  higher  the  price  the  more  dupes  to  buy  it. 
Every  gardener  can  save  seed  by  permitting  certain  of 
his  plants  to  stand  long  enough,  but  usually  such  a 
course  does  not  pay,  for  the  reason  that  garden  space  is 
generally  so  valuable  that  crops  reaching  edible  condi- 
tion must  be  cleared  away  to  make  room  for  others  in 
their  season,  and  again,  that  on  fields  of  limited  extent, 
crops  of  various  sorts  of  peas,  beans,  corn,  melons, 
squash  and  cucumber  become  each  within  its  own  family 
hybridized,  or  interbred,  so  that  crops  grown  from  seed 
raised  in  the  garden  present  in  one  lot  all  the  qualities 
of  the  various  crops  of  the  preceding  year,  and  always 
the  poor  qualities  will  be  found  to  predominate,  as  with 
vegetable,  like  animal  life,  the  coarse,  ill  bred  types  are 
the  most  precocious  and  prolific.  Still,  it  is  occasionally 
worth  the  time  and  labor  of  the  amateur  to  experiment 
in  seed  saving,  for  it  certainly  affords  interesting  instruc- 
tion, whether  the  return  be  profitable  or  not,  and  it  can- 
not be  doubted  that  the  very-cross-fertilizing,  consequent 
upon  the  crowding  of  crops  in  gardens,  has  been  the 
origin  of  many  valuable  hybrids.  This  cross-fertilizing 
occurs  during  the  flowering  season,  and  results  from  the 
pollen,  a  light  powder,  produced  by  the  organs  of  the 
male  flower  of  one  sort  of  bean,  corn,  melon,  or  other 
plant,  falling  upon  the  female  organ  of  the  flower  of  some 
other  variety  of  the  same  family.  The  pollen,  carried 
by  the  wind,  or  borne  on  the  bodies  of  insects,  may  be 
carried  for  miles.  Corn  has  been  known  to  intermix 
when  planted  hundreds  of  yards  apart,  or  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  dense  woodland,  or  on  opposite  sides  of  a  river 


76  MARKET    GARDENING. 

a  mile  in  width.  This  natural  disposition  of  established 
sorts  to  cross-breed  has  been  taken  advantage  of  by 
expert  gardeners  desiring  to  unite  in  one  individual  the 
good  qualities  of  others.  For  instance,  a  very  early 
pointed  cabbage  may  be  crossed  with  a  very  late  flat  one, 
with  the  view  of  producing  a  variety,  uniting  the  good 
qualities  of  both ;  or  with  canteloupes,  a  poor  variety 
with  a  showy  netting  may  advantageously  be  crossed  with 
a  rich  flavored  sort  without  netting,  and  the  result  be  a 
very  desirable  development,  and  so  on  with  other  plants 
without  limitation. 

The  gardener,  possessing  a  greenhouse,  can  conduct 
experiments  in  hybridizing  with  more  convenience  and 
certainty  in  results  than  in  the  open  garden,  as  inclem- 
ent weather  will  not  interfere  with  his  labors,  nor  insects 
defeat  his  purposes  by  crossing  his  selected  plants  from 
unknown  sources. 

Seed  Growers. — The  professional  seed  grower 
aims  to  produce  his  general  stock  of  seed  without  hy- 
bridization. He  starts  with  approved  forms  and,  grow- 
ing them  apart,  endeavors  to  strengthen  or  extend  the 
desirable  qualities  of  size,  color,  flavor,  hardiness,  or 
time  of  maturity.  But  all  seed  growers  do  not  look 
upon  a  vegetable  or  fruit  with  the  same  eye  and  mind, 
consequently  their  conceptions  of  merit  vary,  and  so  do 
the  plants  which  they  pick  out  for  select  stock  for  the 
ensuing  year.  Thus  it  comes  that  seeds  sold  under  the 
same  name  produce  very  different  types  of  plants.  One 
sugar  corn  grower  may  select  his  Evergreen,  with  short 
jointed  stocks,  having  ears  near  the  ground ;  another 
may  pay  no  attention  to  the  position  of  the  ears,  but 
select  his  seed  alone  for  the  size  and  shape  of  ear  and 
depth  and  lightness  of  grain ;  or  one  squash  grower  may, 
for  years,  choose  his  from  which  to  save  seed  as  respects 
closeness  of  setting  upon  the  vine,  outward  shape  and 
color  of  fruit;  while  another  may  dwell  principally 


NOVELTIES   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  77 

upon  thickness  of  flesh  texture  and  flavor.  With  this 
variability  in  the  whims  of  seed  growers,  it  cannot  be 
wondered  at  that  seeds  sold  under  the  same  name  pro- 
duce widely  different  results  as  to  development. 


CHAPTEK  XIV. 
SEEDSMEN'S  NOVELTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES. 

There  cannot  be  any  good  reason  advanced  why  the 
seed  grower  should  not  seize  upon  and  perpetuate  vege- 
table hybrids  or  sports  whenever  they  present  new  and 
desirable  features,  even  though  the  plant,  on  the  whole, 
is  no  better  than  some  other  well  known  sort.  Novelties 
may  often  show  no  practical  improvement,  in  any  sense, 
being  simply  a  variability  of  questionable  utility  in  form, 
size  or  color ;  nevertheless,  the  effort  to  develop  novelties 
has  resulted  in  an  improvement  in  vegetables  and  flow- 
ers to  such  an  extent  that,  in  the  manner  of  general 
excellence,  the  cultivated  plants  of  the  present  day  are 
far  in  advance  of  those  of  twenty  years  ago. 

Demand  for  Novelties. — Novelties  in  vegetables 
and  flowers  are  all  right,  so  far  as  they  are  true  novel- 
ties, and  selected  by  practical  seed-growers,  but,  unfor- 
tunately, many  so-called  novelties  are  not  the  result  of 
culture  or  selection  by  practical  workers  in  the  field,  but 
altogether  the  product  of  the  sensational  seed  merchant, 
who  does  his  farming  at  his  desk,  his  plow  being  his 
pen,  drawn  by  an  imagination  so  fertile  as  to  have  ex- 
hausted the  vocabulary  of  the  English  language,  to 
which  he  adds  pictures  and  illustrations,  ofttimes  por- 
trayed in  such  an  undignified  and  offensive  manner  as 
to  bring  his  business  down  to  the  level  of  the  mounte- 
bank. In  no  business  of  the  present  day  is  there  so 


78  MARKET    GARDENING. 

much  disguised  humbug  and  open  misrepresentation  as 
in  the  seed  business, — misrepresentation  in  description  of 
color,  form  and  merit  of  vegetables  and  flowers,  due,  on 
one  hand,  to  ignorance,  and  on  the  other,  to  design,  by 
illustration  or  pictures  of  monstrous  and  impossible  veg- 
etables and  flowers  ;  also  in  the  illustration  of  seed  stores, 
offices,  seed-packing  rooms,  and  published  statements  of 
sales,  all  schemes  to  catch  the  eye  and  take  the  money 
of  the  confiding  gardener. 

This  reprehensible  practice,  originated  by  English 
seedsmen,  has  been  adopted  in  this  country,  and,  as 
Americans  do  not  like  to  be  outdone  by  Britons,  they 
have  gone,  not  one  better^  but  advanced  by  strides  and 
jumps,  till  the  Englishman  hides  his  head  in  abashment 
at  his  own  insignificance. 

It  will,  however,  remain  for  the  planter  of  novelties 
and  specialties  to  determine  for  himself,  whether  they 
develop  features  of  superior  excellence  upon  his  soil  and 
under  the  conditions  of  his  climate.  On  some  soils  they 
may  possess  very  desirable  qualities,  and  entirely  fail  on 
others.  Merit  in  vegetables  covers  a  wide  range  of  char- 
acter. It  may  consist  of  coloring,  form,  size,  texture, 
flavor,  precocity,  productiveness,  or  freedom  from  dis- 
ease, sunburn  or  decay,  resistance  to  insect  depredations, 
and  excessive  heat  or  cold,  wet  or  drought.  All  these 
qualities  are  subjects  for  study  in  the  field  by  the  ob- 
serving seed  grower,  market  or  private  gardener,  for 
these  cannot  be  determined  at  the  desk  of  the  modern 
catalogue  manufacturer.  So  much  humbug  has  been 
thrown  into  the  seed  catalogues  of  the  past  ten  years, 
that  the  intelligent  gardener  has  had  his  eyes  opened, 
and  he  is  now  discriminating  between  those  dealers  who 
can  advise  technically  and  those  who  have  no  training 
in  the  field. 


NOVELTIES  AND  KESPON  SIBIL  I  TIES.  79 

SEEDSMEN'S  KESPONSIBILITIES. 

A  review  of  the  seed  catalogues,  price  lists  and  pub- 
lications of  American,  English,  French  and  German 
seed  merchants  and  seed  farmers,  will  reveal  the  fact 
that  they  all  disclaim  responsibility  for  the  consequences 
of  planting  seed  obtained  from  them.  They  emphatic- 
ally declare  they  cannot,  and  will  not,  be  held  responsi- 
ble for  the  varying  results  of  seed  sold  by  them  and 
planted  by  their  customers,  consequent  upon  influences 
of  soil,  rainfall,  drouth,  periods  of  sowing,  inexperience 
of  sower,  and  the  many  other  causes  which  produce  con- 
flicting results  in  the  germination  of  seed,  development 
of  plants,  and  in  the  perfection  of  growth,  fruit  or  flower. 

To  clearly  convey  the  position  taken  by  European 
seed  merchants  upon  this  subject  of  responsibility,  four 
forms  of  disclaimer,  as  published  by  as  many  well-known 
foreign  seedsmen,  are  here  given,  all  others  using  the 
same  or  similar  forms  : 

1st.  "  We  herewith  desire  to  remind  our  customers, 
that  whilst  using  our  utmost  care  to  supply  seed  only 
of  such  quality  as  to  insure  entire  satisfaction,  we  give  no 
warranty  as  to  description,  quality  or  productiveness, 
there  being  too  many  causes,  known  and  unknown, 
which  prevent  good  seeds  from  germinating." 

3d.  "We  wish  it  to  be  distinctly  understood,  that 
while  we  exercise  the  greatest  care  to  supply  all  seeds 
pure  and  reliable,  we  are  not,  in  any  respect,  liable  or 
responsible  for  the  seeds  sold  by  us,  or  for  any  loss  or 
damage  arising  from  any  failure  thereof." 

3d.  "We  send  out  only  seeds  that  will,  to  the  best 
of  our  belief,  give  entire  satisfaction ;  it  must,  however, 
be  expressly  understood  that  immunity  from  error  being 
unattainable,  and  success  more  often  dependent  on  cli- 
matic or  local  influences  than  is  generally  supposed,  we 
warrant  neither  description,  growth  nor  'productiveness 
of  any  goods  we  -sell,  nor  will  we  hold  ourselves  in  any 
way  responsible  for  the  crop." 

4th.  "We  give  no  warranty,  express  or  implied, 
as  to  description,  quality,  productiveness,  or  any  other 


80  MARKET   GARDENING. 

matter  of  any  seeds  we  send  out,  and  we  will  not  be,  in 
any  way,  responsible  for  the  crop.  If  the  purchaser  does 
not  accept  the  goods  on  these  terms  they  are  at  once  to 
be  returned." 

No  seedsman  with  any  security  to  his  property  rights 
could  conduct  a  business  where  he  would  be  subject  to 
suits  at  law  by  every  merchant  and  gardener  who  might 
be  inclined  to  lodge  at  his  door  the  material  results  of 
crops.  Every  observing  worker  in  the  garden  can  recall 
most  contradictory  experience  in  the  sprouting  and  grow- 
ing of  crops.  For  instance,  in  April,  1890,  the  writer 
drilled,  on  Bloomsdale  Farm,  many  acres  of  bush  beans  of 
various  sorts,  and  in  the  trial  grounds  planted  samples  of 
these  and  many  other  lots.  These  field  crops  and  the 
trial  ground  plantings  were  repeated  in  May.  The 
spring  temperature  was  cold  and  the  earth  kept  con- 
stantly cold  and  damp  by  frequent  rains ;  the  results 
were  so  contradictory  as  to  be  beyond  explanation.  For 
example,  a  special  variety,  doing  well  in  the  field,  did 
badly  in  the  trial  ground;  or  the  same  variety,  doing 
well  in  trial  grounds,  did  badly  in  the  field.  In  every 
case  the  highest  results  were  accepted  as  indicative  of  the 
percentage  of  vitality,  though  the  same  lot  of  beans  may 
have  exhibited  the  wide  range  of  from  twenty-five  to 
ninety-five  per  cent  of  germination. 

The  same  irregular  results  are  observable,  not  only 
in  germination,  but  in  subsequent  growth,  and  all  the 
way  to  maturity  of  form,  size  and  quality  of  vegetable, 
fruit  or  flower  from  seed  out  of  the  same  bag,  all  conse- 
quent upon  natural  or  artificial  condition  of  soil,  tempo- 
rary influence  of  temperature  by  day,  and  quite  as  often 
by  night ;  sunlight,  rainfall,  favorable  influence  to  urge 
into  rapid  growth,  or  unfavorable  conditions  to  check 
progress  often  occurring  at  that  period  of  the  plant's 
development,  determining  its  merit  for  excellence,  medi- 
ocrity or  inferiority. 


NOVELTIES   AND    RESPONSIBILITIES.  81 

Irregularity  in  sprouting  is  often  observable  with 
seeds  just  harvested,  particularly  so  with  corn  and  beans, 
as  it  would  seem  nature  intended  they  should  become 
dry  or  dormant  before  sprouting  into  new  life.  Seeds 
of  cabbage,  turnip  and  radish  are  liable  to  grow  moldy 
if  kept  in  bags  without  ventilation,  and  often  the  seed 
merchant  is  blamed  for  the  inattention  of  the  consumer 
himself. 

The  writer  has  known  of  many  instances  where 
freshly  harvested,  and,  consequently,  soft  seeds  of  turnip, 
cabbage  and  radish,  shipped  because  the  consumer 
insisted  upon  having  fresh  seeds,  proved,  upon  examina- 
tion later  on  in  the  season,  after  having  been  kept  in 
bags  as  shipped,  to  have  taken  on  a  moldy  smell  and,  on 
trial,  to  have  fallen  from  ninety  or  ninety-five  per  cent, 
vitality  to  fifty  per  cent.  Sugar  corn  is  very  liable  to 
injury  when  stored  in  bags,  and  new  beans  shipped  early 
in  autumn  are  almost  certain  to  sweat. 

In  the  United  States  the  leading  seedsmen  publish 
a  disclaimer  to  the  same  effect  as  their  brethren  in 
Europe,  the  phraseology,  in  general,  being  about  the 
same.  No  sensible  gardener  would  take  exceptions  to 
this,  as  it  is  only  such  a  precaution  as  he  himself  would 
take,  knowing  full  well  the  variable  results  of  climate, 
soil,  rainfall,  and  variations  in  the  action  of  manures. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
WEEDS. 

An  old  adage  among  the  English  wheat  growers  is, 
"that  the  greatest  weed  in  wheat  is  wheat/'  implying 
that  a  plant  of  wheat  properly  developed  must  have 
room,  that  crowding  by  another,  even  of  its  own  species, 
is  injurious,  and  that  a  plant  so  crowding  another  is  a 
weed.  A  weed,  then,  is  a  plant  out  of  place,  not  neces- 
sarily a  noxious  plant,  or  a  wild  plant. 

The  ordinary  understanding  adopts  the  term  weed 
to  designate  an  unattractive  plant,  without  special  value. 
On  the  farm  the  term  weed  is  used  to  designate  an 
intruder  among  cultivated  crops,  an  uninvited  guest. 
As  a  rule,  those  plants  recognized  as  weeds  are  of  foreign 
origin,  the  seed  being  brought  to  this  country  through 
commerce,  transported  here  with  other  seeds,  or  in  pack- 
ing material  of  hay  or  straw.  As  an  example  may  be 
cited  the  one  hundred  new  plants  which  appeared  and 
were  scattered  all  over  Fairmount  Park  after  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition,  which  were  mainly  from  the  forty 
countries  represented.  The  delicate  ones  succumbed 
under  our  cold  winter;  many  of  the  hardy  ones  still 
exist,  spreading  far  and  wide  over  the  surrounding 
country. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  to  note  that  foreign  weeds  have 
taken  a  firmer  place  in  our  own  garden  and  field  than 
our  aboriginal  weeds,  which  have  disappeared  before  the 
march  of  the  invader  as  native  tribes  have  succumbed 
before  the  descendants  of  the  Europeans.  All  of  our 
cultivated  plants  have  their  wild  originals,  and  many  of 

82 


WEEDS.  83 

our  most  ornamental  flowers  have  been  discovered  away 
from  the  haunts  of  man,  but  whatever  the  form,  color 
or  habit  of  plants,  injurious  to  other  crops  or  exhausting 
the  soil  without  profit,  they  are  designated  as  weeds. 

Classification  of  Weeds. — These  pestiferous 
plants  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  Annuals, 
developing  seed  and  dying  ^he  same  season ;  biennials, 
taking  two  years  to  perfectly  develop  and  produce  seed, 
and  then  die ;  perennials,  covering  several  seasons  of 
growth  and  seeding.  These  three  classes  may  be  di- 
vided as  respects  the  character  of  underground  growth, 
some  producing  surface  roots,  as  rag  weed,  easily 
pulled  up,  others  producing  rod-shaped  roots,  as  wild 
carrot,  which  can  be  extracted  entire;  other  bulbs,  as 
buttercups  or  garlic,  very  difficult  of  eradication,  while 
others  are  tubers,  as  coco  grass,  a  troublesome  class,  and 
still  others,  producing  subterranean  root-stems,  as  Can- 
ada thistle,  having  numerous  buds,  each  capable  of 
developing  new  plants. 

Destroying  Weeds. — All  these  weeds,  when  in 
their  first  stages  of  growth,  may  be  kept  in  check,  if  not 
entirely  destroyed,  in  the  garden,  by  plucking  them 
when  an  inch  or  so  high,  or  with  a  hoe  or  knife  cutting 
them  off,  or  by  disturbing  the  soil  with  a  cultivator,  by 
turning  under  with  a  plow,  or  by  smothering  with  mulch 
or  waste  material.  Noxious  weeds  never  should  be  per- 
mitted to  mature  their  seeds ;  if  not  destroyed  they 
should  certainly  be  so  cut  down  and  kept  cut  down  as  to 
prevent  seed  development. 

State  Laws  Respecting  Weeds  — In  some 
States  there  are  legislative  enactments  requiring  the 
destruction  of  the  Canada  thistle,  recognized  everywhere 
as  one  of  the  most  persistent  and  dangerous  of  encroach- 
ing weeds.  It  would  be  well  if  a  similar  statute  was 
adopted  by  all  the  States,  and  applied  to  other  weeds, 
as  mustard,  ox-eye  daisy,  wild  carrot,  which  careless 


84  MARKET   GARDENING. 

farmers  allow  to  propagate  on  their  lands,  to  their  own 
disgrace  and  to  the  manifest  injury  of  their  neighbors. 
A  very  intelligent  French  agriculturist,  once  visiting  the 
writer,  after  making  a  tour  of  the  United  States,  said 
the  American  farm  was  the  -most  slovenly  he  had  ever 
looked  upon  ;  and  it  is  quite  true,  for,  as  a  rule,  every 
farmer  in  this  country  has  more  land  than  he  can  prop- 
erly attend  to,  and,  at  the  best,  but  few  have  had  that 
education  in  the  economy  of  space  which  has  been  so 
intently  studied  in  Europe. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES. 

The  ordinary  size  of  a  convenient  hotbed,  may  be 
ten  feet,  by  six  or  seven  feet  wide,  or  it  may  be  only 
of  the  dimensions  of  a  common  window  sash,  three  feet 
by  four  feet,  more  or  less.  The  shape  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  definition,  which  may  be  to  the  effect  that  a 
hotbed  is  a  box  covered  with  glass,  the  whole  placed 
upon  a  bed  of  soil  resting  on  a  bed  of  fermenting  stable 
manure,  the  heat  from  which,  rising  in  the  form  of 
vapor,  warms  and  moistens  the  soil  within  the  box, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  sun's  rays,  passing  through 
the  glass,  are  retained  to  warm  and  vivify  the  surface. 

Seeds  sown  within  such  a  box  will  germinate  in  less 
time  than  without  such  protection.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  varying  forms  which  hotbeds  may  take,  the  writer 
may  say  that  he  once  saw  an  efficient  hotbed  full  of  vig- 
orous vines  of  egg  plant,  made  of  a  large  oil  or  whisky 
barrel,  with  the  head  and. bottom  knocked  out,  and  then 
let  down  half  way  into  the  earth  and  banked  up  all 
around  with  soil.  In  the  bottom,  six  inches  of  stone 
were  placed  for  drainage,  and  then  eighteen  inches  of 


HOTBEDS   A  JO)    COLD  FRAMES.  85 

rich,  unfermented  horse  manure,  six  inches  of  fine  rich 
earth,  rising  to  within  ten  inches  of  the  top  of  the  bar- 
rel, the  open  top  covered  with  a  discarded  window  sash. 
We  do  not  recommend  such  a  hotbed,  but  it  is  an  exam- 
ple of  the  simplicity  with  which  one  can  be  made.  With 
a  full  understanding  of  the  cardinal  principles  of  so 
applying  the  manure  as  to  make  it  hold  the  heat  of  fer- 
mentation, to  handle  the  sash  so  as  to  collect  and  accu- 
mulate the  sun's  heat,  it  matters  little  what  form  the 
box  assumes. 

The  location  of  the  hotbed  has  much  to  do  with  its 
success  or  failure.  It  should  only  be  placed  on  land 
always  free  from  flooding,  preferably  on  a  declivity,  with 
good  subsoil  drainage,  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  and 
facing  south  or  southeast.  As  an  example  of  a  hotbed 
frame,  we  will  describe  it  as  a  box  for  one,  two  or  four 
sashes,  each  seven  feet  long  by  three  and  one-quarter  feet 
wide.  This  dimension  of  sashes  is  given  because  it  is 
easy  to  handle.  The  width  named  will  allow  for  four 
lengths  of  8x10  glass  placed  lengthwise.  Whatever  the 
dimensions  of  the  sashes,  all  should  be  alike,  so  as  to 
be  interchangeable.  The  frame  may  be  permanent,  of 
brick  or  stone,  or,  temporary,  of  boards.  The  frame 
may  be  regularly  built  by  a  carpenter,  with  strong  cor- 
ner pieces,  or  the  gardener  can  do  all  the  work  himself 
and  attain  just  as  practical  results.  Doing  the  work 
himself,  he  may  proceed  as  follows :  The  length  and 
breadth  of  the  bed  having  been  decided  upon,  excavate 
a  space  two  feet  wider  and  two  feet  longer  than  the  indi- 
cated dimensions.  After  the  excavation  is  completed, 
drive  down  at  the  four  corners,  and  at  intervals  between 
the  corners,  posts  of  proper  lengths,  four  by  four  inches 
square,  to  which  nail  the  side  boards ;  the  posts  on  the 
back  of  the  frame  rising  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  above 
the  surface  level,  and  those  in  front  of  the  frame  six  to 
eight  inches,  nailing  the  boards  only  to  those  portions 


86  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

of  the  post  which  are  above  the  earth  level,  the  boxes, 
as  it  were,  standing  on  stilts,  it  being  desirable  to  use 
as  little  lumber  as  possible.  The  excavation  is  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  material  and  contents  of  the  bed 
as  much  removed  as  possible  from  frigid  air  currents, 
and  thus  economize  manure. 

Into  the  excavations  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
in  depth  throw  one  foot  in  thickness  of  cornstalks, 
leaves,  half  rotten  straw  and  coarse  manure,  these  princi- 
pally for  preventing  dampness  or  facilitating  drainage ; 
on  top  of  this  coarse  strata  spread  a  layer  of  three  to 
four  inches  of  good  horse-stable  manure  just  beginning 
to  ferment,  avoiding  pig  and  cow  manure,  as  they  do 
not  heat.  The  manure  for  hotbeds  must  be  well  manip- 
ulated, that  the  fermentation  may  be  prolonged,  and 
this  is  best  done  by  shaking  out  the  manure  loosely  with 
forks,  and,  if  exceedingly  rich,  mixing  it  with  some 
poorer  material,  otherwise  the  fermentation  will  be  too 
fierce  and  of  too  short  duration  ;  indeed,  to  secure  thor- 
ough mixing,  it  is  well  to  turn  the  manure  intended  for 
hotbeds  at  least  three  times,  at  intervals  of  two  days, 
and,  when  transferring  the  manure  from  the  pile  to  the 
bed,  it  should  be  done  quickly,  that  the  manure  be  as 
little  exposed  to  the  chilling  influence  of  the  air  as 
possible. 

Tramp  the  manure  down  and  spread  it  evenly  from 
end  to  end  and  side  to  side ;  when  done  repeat  with  a 
layer  of  three  or  four  inches,  and  when  this  is  spread 
and  well  tramped  down,  add  a  third  layer  of  the  shortest 
and  best  unfermented  manure,  as  this  subsequently  will 
be  a  feeding  ground  for  plants,  the  various  layers  of 
manure  making  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  in  total  depth. 
If  the  spreading  and  tramping  and  quality  of  material 
be  not  regularly  distributed  in  the  bed,  it  will  be  irregu- 
lar and  the  plants  the  same.  For  early  beds  use  the 
manure  liberally.  Very  late  beds  can  be  made  without 


HOTBEDS   AND   COLD    FRAMES.  87 

any,  as  the 'sun,  in  late  spring,  will  give  sufficient  heat. 

Manure  for  Hotbed. — As  fresh  horse-stable  ma- 
nure, when  used  alone,  is  very  heating  and  soon  subsides, 
it  is  best  to  mix  it  with  leaves  or  half  rotten  straw,  as 
seed  may  be  burned  over  manure  of  too  high  temperature. 
Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  indicate  fixed  dates  for  sow- 
ing, over  a  country  so  broad  as  this,  and  with  such  a 
variety  of  climatic  conditions.  The  beginner  can  get 
his  best  hints  for  procedure  from  a  gardener  resident  in 
his  district,  or  others  not  far  removed  from  it.  Any 
recommendations  here  simply  apply  to  the  Atlantic 
Middle  states,  and  even  there  the  practice  is  very  diverse. 
Tomatoes  and  egg  plants  are  best  sown  from  the  first  to 
the  fifteenth  of  March,  otherwise  they  attain  too  large  a 
size  before  a  right  opportunity  for  transplanting  may 
present  itself. 

The  writer,  and  all  others  of  experience,  find  it 
always  best  to  make  two  sowings.  Cost  of  seed  is  a  mat- 
ter of  little  importance,  as  compared  with  securing  a  sat- 
isfactory stand  of  plants.  A  gardener  had  better  pay 
three  dollars  per  pound  for  good  seed  than  one  dollar 
for  seed  that  will  not  germinate,  or,  still  worse,  to  prove, 
after  germinating,  to  be  of  inferior  quality,  as  thus  his 
time  and  labor  would  be  wasted.  As  it  is  always  desirable 
to  have  the  crop  started  ahead  of  the  weeds  natural  to 
the  soil,  the  writer  suggests  the  soaking  of  the  seeds 
before  the  bed  is  made,  that  when  the  bed  arrives  at  the 
proper  condition  the  seed  may  have  germinated  and  be 
ready  to  sow. 

Sowing  Seeds  in  Hotbeds. — With  either  tomato, 
egg  plant  or  cabbage,  mix  the  seed  with  three  times  its 
bulk  of  sifted  sand,  white  sand  preferred,  that  the  seed 
may  be  better  distributed ;  soak  in  tepid  water  for  one 
hour  and  place  the  mixture  of  sand  and  seed  in  shallow 
boxes  or  pans,  carefully  labeled,  and  kept  in  a  warm 
place  till  the  seeds  show  signs  of  germinating.  Some 


»«  t  MARKET   GARDENING. 

varieties  will  take  longer  than  others,  and  different  crops 
of  the  same  variety  will  take  different  periods  to  sprout. 
Seed  thus  treated  and  sown  on  a  properly  prepared  bed 
will  often  show  a  green  line  twenty-four  hours  after  sow- 
ing, and  thus  be  several  days  ahead  of  the  weeds.  If 
the  bed  is  ready  before  the  seed  can  be  prepared,  as 
described,  then  sow  the  dry  seed  and  trust  to  sun,  ma- 
nure and  water  to  hasten  the  process  of  germination. 
After  sowing  keep  the  surface  moist.  Seed  started  in 
pans  may  not  need  more  than  one  watering  previous  to 
showing  above  ground.  Dry  seed  may  require  three  or 
four  waterings,  but  the  gardener  must  judge  of  this  for 
himself,  keeping  the  soil  moist,  but  not  wet,  to  the  depth 
of  one  inch. 

Care  of  Hotbeds. — Hotbeds  should  be  covered 
early  in  the  evening,  to  retain  their  heat,  and  in  the 
morning  uncovered  when  the  sun  rests  upon  the  glass, 
as  every  effort  should  be  made  to  give  the  plants  all  the 
sunlight  possible,  as  its  rays  are  vivifying  to  a  degree 
beyond  the  amount  of  its  heat,  it  having  a  chemical  and 
physiological  effect  beyond  explanation.  Even  dull 
light  is  better  than  no  light,  consequently  it  is  a  bad 
plan  to  cover  sashes  with  mats,  except  for  the  direct  pur- 
pose of  keeping  out  cold. 

If  the  box  should  be  much  charged  with  steam 
from  the  manure,  let  it  off  at  the  high  side,  otherwise 
the  vapor  may  cause  the  plants  to  damp  off.  This 
damping  off  is  a  very  serious  matter,  usually  due  to  a 
want  of  ventilation,  and  it  will  occur  whether  there  be 
steam  or  not  in  the  box,  unless  the  air  be  changed,  as  it 
really  seems  to  become  poisonous  ;  consequently  the  bed 
should  be  aired,  even  in  cloudy  and  cool  weather.  The 
amount  of  air  should  be  regulated  by  the  amount  the 
crop  will  stand  without  injury.  By  such  proper  treat- 
ment the  plants  will  be  short,  stocky,  with  broad,  green 
leaves ;  with  too  little  air  the  plants  will  be  long-legged, 
yellow  and  sickly. 


HOTBEDS   AND   COLD    FRAMES.  89 

Do  not  endeavor  to  obtain,  by  the  exclusion  of  the 
outside  air,  that  heat  which  the  manure  and  sun  should 
supply.  By  close  attention  to  watering,  airing  and 
early  afternoon  closing,  the  development  of  hotbed 
plants  may  be  advanced  ten  days  over  others  not  so  care- 
fully looked  after.  It  may  be  in  place  here  to  observe 
that  much  trouble  may  be  saved  by  having  all  the  sashes 
of  uniform  dimensions,  as,  if  interchangeable,  by  a  little 
good  management  a  few  sashes  will  often  serve  twice  the 
number  of  boxes ;  for,  by  moving  the  sashes  along  as  the 
sowing  progresses,  their  places  being  supplied  by  board 
coverings,  much  can  be  accomplished. 

After  hotbed  plants  reach  from  two  to  three  inches 
in  height,  they  may  be  transplanted  to  other  boxes  or 
frames.  These  frames  may  be  filled  with  good  soil, 
heating  manure  being  unnecessary,  as  the  sun's  rays  in 
April  or  May  should  afford  sufficient  heat  to  advance 
them  to  a  healthy  growth.  The  soil  in  these  frames 
should  rest  on  a  ten-inch  drainage  bed  of  rough  manure, 
cornstalks,  or  trash,  and  should  preferably  be  of  two 
layers  of  distinct  consistency,  one  a  heavy  soil  on  top  of 
the  drainage  material,  with  three  inches  of  light  sandy 
soil  on  top  of  it.  By  this  means  the  plants  can  be  taken 
up  for  setting  out  in  the  open  ground  without  injury  to 
their  fiber,  which  would  be  the  case  if  the  surface  layer 
was  of  compact  loam.  The  experienced  gardener  collects 
in  the  autumn  the  soil  for  his  hotbeds,  well  knowing 
that  Jack  Frost,  at  the  time  he  wants  his  hotbed  soil, 
generally  has  it  tightly  locked  up  in  an  icy  embrace. 

Transplanting  Tender  Plants — Do  not  trans- 
plant to  the  field  too  early.  It  is  best  to  cut  tomatoes 
back  to  two  inches  when  four  inches  high,  which  opera- 
tion makes  them  stocky,  new  buds  will  appear  at  each 
leaf  stem,  while  the  root  will  become  more  fibrous. 
Indeed,  tomatoes  well  cut  back  and  given  plenty  of  air 
need  not  be  transplanted  from  original  beds,  but  can  go 


90  MARKET   GARDENING. 

directly  into  the  garden.  Eighty  feet  square  of  hotbed 
surface  drilled  in  rows  at  five  inches  apart  should  pro- 
duce enough  plants  to  cover  one  acre  of  ground.  Toma- 
toes grown  in  open  air  outside  beds  should  plant  one 
acre  to  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  square  feet.  Seed- 
lings grown  in  outside  beds  need  not  be  transplanted 
before  removal  to  a  permanent  position  in  the  field.  At 
Bloomsdale,  plants  set  out  May  10th  to  20th  ripen  fruit 
by  July  4th. 

During  the  operation  of  transplanting,  the  newly 
planted  bed  should  be  shaded  and  watered  as  the  work 
progresses,  keeping  the  shade  on  for  two  days,  removing 
it  in  the  evenings  or  during  rainy  weather,  after  which 
the  plants  may  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays. 
In  the  evenings  water  sufficiently  to  keep  the  soil  moist, 
and  give  plenty  of  air,  while  avoiding  chilling  them, 
and  in  a  couple  of  weeks  the  plants  will  be  ready  to 
remove  to  the  field.  Egg  plants  take  more  heat  than 
tomatoes,  but  they  need  as  much  ventilation  and  should 
have  more  room. 

Cabbage,  cauliflower  and  lettuce  sow  broadcast,  firsi 
raking  the  surface  soil  to  the  finest  tilth,  distributing 
the  seed  so  that  about  ten  seeds  will  fall  to  the  square 
inch ;  this  many,  to  allow  for  unvital  seeds,  for  too  deep 
or  too  shallow  covering,  and  for  insect  depredations. 
Rake  as  lightly  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  cover  more  than 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  ;  water,  using  a  watering  pot  with 
a  very  fine  rose  nozzle,  or  dash  on  water  with  a  broom, 
and  put  on  the  sash. 

Tomatoes,  egg  plants  and  peppers  should  be  sown 
in  rows,  raking  the  surface  soil  to  the  finest  tilth,  and 
with  a  triangular  stick  of  a  length  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  box,  press  the  sharp  edge  down  into  the  fine  soil, 
making  straight  parallel  rows,  or  trenches,  three  inches 
apart,  and  not  over  one-half  inch  in  depth.  Drop  the 
seeds  in  the  row,  five  to  eight  seeds  to  the  inch,  of  egg 


HOTBEDS   AND   COLD   FRAMES  91 

plant  or  pepper,  and  of  tomatoes  quite  ten  to  tne  inch, 
cover  over  one-third  inch  deep  with  light  soil  from  both 
sides  of  the  trench,  gently  tapping  the  soil  down  with  a 
shingle  or  light  board,  so  as  to  bring  the  seed  and  earth 
into  intimate  contact.  If  the  seed  has  been  soaked  and 
is  mixed  with  wet  sand,  mix  with  some  dry  sand  to  make 
the  mass  friable.  Sand  will  rather  aid  the  germination 
than  hinder  it.  When  sowing  germinated  seed  it  must 
not  be  exposed  to  dry  soil  or  wind,  or  it  may  be  destroyed. 

Stable  manure  hotbeds  will,  it  may  be  presumed, 
continue  to  be  used,  in  spite  of  the  cheapened  construc- 
tion and  complete!*  development  of  beds  and  glass  houses, 
heated  by  fire,  cheap  as  they  are,  for  they  are  too  costly 
for  some,  take  too  much  time  to  erect,  and  require  early 
preparation. 

Forcing  beds  for  hot  air  heating  may  have  much 
the  same  appearance  as  manure  hotbeds,  and  may  be 
cheaply  made  by  excavating  a  pit,  or  trench,  a  foot 
deeper  than  described  for  the  making  of  manure  hotbeds, 
and  laying  in  the  pit  a  double  line  of  iron  or  terra  cotta 
smoke  pipe  leading  from  a  furnace  placed  in  a  deeper 
pit  at  one  end  of  the  line  to  the  extreme  end  of  the 
excavation,  and  back  to  a  chimney  built  alongside  or  on 
top  of  the  furnace,  that  the  heat  from  the  furnace, 
warming  the  cold  air  in  the  chimney,  may  drive  it  out, 
and  thus,  creating  a  partial  vacuum,  start  a  steady  cur- 
rent throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  hot  air  fines. 

Nearly  fifty  years  ago  this  arrangement  was  in  use  on 
Bloomsdale  Farm,  though  some  people  think  it  is  a  new 
idea.  The  smoke  pipes  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench 
are  covered  over  by  a  floor  of  boards  to  support  the 
earth,  the  floor  at  the  end  next  to  the  furnace  being 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  above  the  pipes,  but  at  the  other 
end  approaching  to  within  six  inches,  because  of  the 
loss  tf£  heat  at  the  extremity. 

Intermediate  Bed.  —  The  term  "intermediate 
bed"  may  be  applied  to  beds  or  frames  used  in  the  au- 


92  MARKET   GARDENING. 

tumn  for  the  propagation  of  lettuce,  parsley  and  other 
crops  intended  to  mature  during  winter. .  In  sash  beds 
two  crops  can  be  grown,  first  lettuce,  again  lettuce,  witli 
radish  between  the  rows.  The  boxes  should  be  on  a  dry 
piece  of  land  and  well  sheltered  from  fierce  blasts  of 
wintry  air. 

To  make  the  frame,  drive  or  set  posts  into  the 
ground,  projecting  above  the  surface,  twelve  inches  on 
the  back  and  eight  inches  on  the  front,  the  distance 
between  the  front  and  back  lines  being  three  inches  less 
than  the  length  of  the  sashes,  so  as  to  admit  of  an  over- 
hanging at  both  ends,  to  cast  oif  water.  Board  up  the 
two  lines  and  the  two  ends,  and  the  skeleton  is  com- 
pleted. Next  put  in  cross  pieces  at  proper  distances  for 
the  sash  to  run  on ;  these  can  be  mortised  in  at  both 
ends.  Next  dig  out  the  interior  of  the  frames  to  a  depth 
of  ten  inches,  preserving  the  good  top  soil,  and  fill  in 
the  excavation  with  drainage  material  of  trash,  dead 
leaves  and  vines,  strawy  manure,  or  even  shavings, 
well  pressed  down.  On  top  of  the  filling  of  the  pifc  place 
four  to  five  inches  of  good  surface  soil,  and  on  top  of  that 
a  couple  of  inches  of  soil  still  better  if  it  can  be  had,  if 
not,  work  in  some  fine  compost  and  some  sand,  raising 
the  surface  to  within  eight  or  nine  inches  of  the  glass. 
In  sowing  intermediate  beds,  proceed  the  same  as  in  sow- 
ing hotbeds.  If  old  hotbeds  are  used  the  preparation  for 
the  seeding,  consists  in  turning  over  the  surface  soil, 
and  possibly  adding  two  inches  of  fresh  sandy  compost. 

Cold  Frame. — A  cold  frame  is  a  winter  storage 
box  containing  plants  to  be  transplanted  into  hotbeds, 
or  in  the  field  in  spring.  It  is  always  made  without 
manure,  and  may  be  made  without  under  drain  age, 
though  such  drainage  always  has  its  advantages.  If 
made  for  merely  temporary  use,  the  front  and  back 
boards  may  be  held  by  stakes  driven  down  on  eack  side 
of  the  boards  to  hold  them  in  place.  The  cross  pieces 


HOTBEDS   AND   COLD    FRAMES.  93 

used  in  hotbeds  and  intermediate  beds  are  not  needed  in 
cold  frames,  which  are  intended  to  be  kept  in  a  dormant 
state ;  therefore  no  warmth  is  necessary,  and  no  glass  is 
needed  except  in  extremely  cold  weather.  Sometimes 
the  plants  are  started  in  the  frame  in  the  early  autumn, 
other  times  they  are  taken  from  other  localities  and  dib- 
bled in,  or  laid  in  or  bedded  very  closely,  the  aim  being 
to  suspend  or  retard  growth.  Plants  in  cold  frames, 
when  frozen,  must  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  but  on 
mild  days  plenty  of  air  should  be  given  to  keep  them 
sound  and  healthy. 

Plant  Pit. — A  pit  for  plants  is  used  for  housing  or 
protecting  during  winter  half  hardy  plants,  many  of 
which,  in  a  well  constructed  pit,  blossom  during  winter 
and  will  all  be  well  advanced  in  spring.  In  general 
principles  a  plant  pit  is  similar  to  a  cold  frame  bed, 
made  more  durable,  and  also  set  deeper  in  the  earth. 

To  construct  a  cheap  plant  pit,  select  a  dry  location 
and  mark  off  the  length  desired,  and  of  width  equal  to 
the  length  of  sashes  used.  As  the  contents  of  a  cold 
pit  are  intended  to  stand  from  autumn  to  spring  it, 
should  be  placed  on  land  not  likely  to  be  flooded  by 
rain,  melting  snow  or  back  water.  Plant  pits  may  be 
for  permanent  or  temporary  use,  and  of  either  brick  or 
wood.  If  of  wood,  a  solid  frame  may  be  used,  made  by 
setting  or  driving  posts  in  two  parallel  lines,  the  back 
line  twenty  inches  higher  than  the  front ;  or  dig  out  the 
earth  to  a  depth  of  two  feet  and  set  square  sided  posts  at 
the  corners,  and  along  the  sides  to  which  nail  on  boards, 
making  a  box  without  a  bottom  or  top  within  the  exca- 
vation. The  posts  on  the  back  should  be  three  and  one- 
half  feet  long.  On  top  of  the  frame  place  six  covered 
bars,  at  proper  intervals,  for  the  sash  to  slide  upon  the 
ends  of  the  bars  mortised  into  the  back  and  front  boards 
of  the,  frame.  Pack  the  earth  tightly  in  the  cracks 
beneath  the  surface  around  the  outside  of  the  box,  and 


94  MARKET  GARDENING. 

above  the  surface  bank  up  all  around  with  the  excavated 
earth.  The  pit  is  now  ready  for  the  reception  of  potted 
plants  of  primulas,  pelargoniums,  violets,  wall  flowers, 
begonias,  heliotropes,  fuchsias,  abutilons,  lilies  or  roses, 
the  tallest  plant  being  placed  on  the  back,  where  the 
elevation  is  three  and  one-half  feet. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
MARKET  GARDENING  UNDER  GLASS. 

So  many  and  so  radical  have  been  the  changes  in 
modern  commercial  gardening  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  that  a  practical  market  gardener,  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ngo,  who,  like  Eip  Van  Winkle,  should  have 
taken  a  sleep  from  1870  until  the  present,  on  awaking 
would  find  that  his  profession,  as  he  understood  it,  had 
passed  away,  his  old-fashioned  and  pet  methods  having 
been  so  altered  that  he  would  neither  recognize  nor  under- 
stand the  ways  and  means  in  'practice  by  his  scientific 
successors.  Similar  improved  methods  and  appliances 
run  through  every  branch  of  horticulture,  but  there  is 
no  branch  where  there  have  been  more  innovations  made 
than  in  that  of  forcing  vegetables  under  glass.  These 
various  changes  in  modes  of  culture  are  the  result  of  a 
rapidly  increasing  demand  in  large  cities  and  towns  in 
the  north  and  west  for  lettuce,  radishes,  cucumbers  and 
other  esculents  for  winter  and  early  spring  use.  To 
meet  this  constant,  ever-broadening  and  profitable  branch 
of  gardening,  new  and  improved  systems  had  to  be  de- 
veloped. As  long  as  the  art  of  gardening  has  been  prac- 
ticed, both  for  private  advantage  and,  in  a  limited  ex- 
tent, for  commercial  purposes,  forcing  certain  vegeta- 
bles in  winter  has  been  customary,  but  the  old  methods, 


MARKET  GARDENING   UNDER   GLASS.  95 

entailing  a  great  amount  of  manual  labor,  were  expen- 
sive, the  cost,  if  taken  into  account,  being  often  greater 
than  the  value  of  the  articles  produced.  Every  reading 
gardener  knows  that  lettuce,  asparagus,  radish  and 
cucumbers  have,  for  a  century,  been  grown  during  win- 
ter by  bottom  heat  in  glass  covered  hotbeds  or  in  cold 
frames,  which  slow  methods  are  in  use  yet  by  private 
gardeners  "for  home  consumption  ;  but  with  the  commer- 
cial market  gardener,  who  aims  for  the  largest  net  re- 
turns from  his  capital  and  labor,  the  old  style  hotbed 
and  cold  frame  no  longer  answer  the  purpose,  for  they 
are  expensive,  as  compared  with  returns,  and  do  not 
enable  him  to  meet  the  enormously  increased  demand 
for  crisp  winter-grown  vegetables.  In  changing  from 
the  old  to  the  present  system,  mistakes  were  made  in 
the  construction  of  the  early  forcing-houses,  which  time 
and  practical  experience  have  modified  and  corrected. 
Accordingly,  such  structures,  buiit  during  the  last 
eight  or  ten  years,  are  very  different  in  appearance  and 
interior  arrangements  from  those  erected  a  dozen  years 
ago.  At  that  time  the  ordinary  greenhouse  form  was 
imitated  in  constructing  vegetable  forcing  houses.  These 
were  usually  built  eleven  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  neces- 
sary, with  side  walls  four  feet  high,  the  top  roofed  with 
movable  sashes  three  by  six  feet.  In  such  houses  there 
were  two  tables  three  and  one-half  feet  high  running 
the  whole  length,  with  a  narrow  passage-way  in  the  cen- 
ter. On  these  wooden  tables,  or  benches,  prepared  soil, 
to  a  depth  of  twelve  to  fourteen  inches,  was  placed,  and 
made  ready  for  the  process  of  culture.  The  heating  was 
done  by  hot  water,  the  same  as  now.  The  water  used 
was  lifted  by  hand- worked  force-pumps,  and  applied 
sometimes  by  hose,  but  generally  by  the  expensive  sys- 
tem of  hand-pots,  entailing  a  great  amount  of  labor,  a 
slow  and  expensive  method  compared  with  the  system 
now  practiced. 


9G  MARKET   GARDENING. 

As  stated,  the  form  of  houses  and  interior  construc- 
tion of  those  built  recently  are  different  in  appearance 
and  more  economically  arranged  for  the  specific  purpose 
of  raising  winter  vegetables ;  the  changes  are  but  the 
results  of  practical  experience  in  this  branch  of  horti- 
culture by  some  of  the  most  thrifty  and  prosperous  mar- 
ket gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  where  this 
system  of  market  gardening  is  carried  out  on  a  most  ex- 
tensive scale.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  briefly  outline 
the  construction  of  four  distinct  styles  of  forcing  houses 
for  vegetables,  which  may  be  designated  as  systems  num- 
bered 1st,  2d,  3d  and  4th. 

In  reference  to  system  No.  1  a  progressive  and  suc- 
cessful market  gardener  in  New  Jersey  has  said:  "I 
have  built,  in  all,  fourteen  large  vegetable  forcing- 
houses,  and  the  one  that  I  have  just  completed  I  con- 
sider as  near  right  as  it  is  possible  to  get  it,  and  that 
after  an  experience 'of  twelve  years  in  this  branch  of  gar- 
dening." In  this  connection  the  fact  may  be  mentioned, 
incidentally,  that  the  gardener  referred  to  is  both  thrifty 
and  prosperous,  the  result  of  skill  in  conducting  a  busi- 
ness requiring  a  keen,  practical  and  observing  mind, 
with  the  energy  and  cash  to  carry  out  his  plans.  His  is 
the  kind  of  experience  that  is  of  real  value  to  beginners, 
and  my  aim  is  to  give,  as  concisely  as  possible,  the  sub- 
stance of  such  experience,  gathered  from  those  who 
bought  it  dearly  by  hard  work  and  disappointment  in 
their  first  efforts.  Facts,  when  gleaned  from  such 
sources,  are  of  value  to  those  who  are  about  to  embark 
in  the  same  line  of  business.  To  be  able  to  avoid  the 
stumbling  blocks  and  steer  clear  of  the  mistakes  likely 
to  be  made  in  a  new  undertaking  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  as  saving  time  and  cash,  two  important 
considerations. 

The  forcing  house  recently  constructed  by  the  mar- 
ket gardener  referred  to  and  which  may  be  designated  as 


MARKET   GARDENING   UNDER   GLASS.  97 

plan  No.  1,  is  thirty-one  feet  wide,  outside  measure,  two 
feet  less  inside,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long.  The 
house  is  set  down  in  an  excavation,  partly  below  the  sur- 
face, the  footwalks  being  thirty  inches  below  the  outside 
level.  The  exterior  walls,  four  feet  high,  are  built  of 
brick,  thirty  inches  below  the  surface  and  eighteen 
inches  above  it  on  the  outside.  The  top  of  these  walls 
is  finished  to  receive  a  plate.  *  The  top  of  the  house  is 
a  lean-to  span  with  a  hip-joint.  The  ridge-pole  is  eleven 
feet  above  the  floor,  and  jointed.  The  pine  strips  run- 
ning from  the  plate  to  the  ridge-pole  are  one  and  one- 
half  by  two  and  one-half  inches,  made  fast  to  a  cross- 
piece  at  the  hip-joint  and  ridge-pole,  and  are  ten  inches 
apart.  Heavy  French  glass  8x10  is  glazed  on  the  out- 
side of  the  strips.  It  is  economy  to  use  the  best  quality 
of  glass  for  this  purpose.  Every  twelve  feet  on  both 
sides  there  is  a  hinged  sash,  running  from  the  plate  to 
the  hip-joint.  By  this  means  the  house  can  be  aired 
when  necessary,  an  operation  of  the  utmost  importance. 
With  this  exception  the  roof  structure  is  made  fast, 
avoiding  the  use  of  movable  sashes  entirely.  The  water, 
falling  upon  the  roof,  is  all  saved  and  led  by  gutters  into 
a  cistern  at  the  end  of  the  house,  to  be  used  for  watering 
the  plants  when  needed.  As  the  rain  falling  upon  the 
roof  may  not  be  sufficient,  a  well  and  pump  are  provided 
to  meet  cases  of  emergency.  There  are  three  tables,  or 
beds,  running  the  length  of  the  house,  and  two  narrow 
passage-ways.  The  center  bed,  which  is  eighteen  feet 
wide,  is  made  by  erecting  two  parallel  walls  of  brick, 
running  through  the  length  of  the  house  to  within  six 
or  eight  feet  of  each  end.  These  walls  should  be  eight 
inches  thick  and  three  and  one-half  feet  high.  In  digging 
the  excavation  for  the  house,  the  space  designed  for  the 
center  bed  may  be  left  intact,  excepting  the  removal  of 
the  upper  half.  This  block  of  natural  soil  is  walled  in, 
forming  a  solid  bed  distinct  from  the  side  beds,  which 
7 


.  \ 

98  MARKET   GABDENING. 

are  open  beneath.  Upon  the  bank  of  natural  soil  is 
placed  well-rotted  manure  and  garden  soil  preparatory 
to  culture.  Elevated  beds  (the  exponents  of  this  system 
claim),  are  more  desirable  than  those  sunken  to  the 
le.yel  of  the  floor,  in  the  economy  of  heating,  as  well  as 
in  working,  elevated  ones  being  credited  with  producing 
more  uniform  crops  than  the  others,  at  less  expense. 
The  use  of  brick  instead  *of  wood  for  the  center  table  is 
an  improvement  in  the  method  of  construction  which 
will  strike  every  practical  gardener  favorably.  In  a 
house  that  is  kept  damp  and  warm  several  months  of 
the  year,  wood  will  rot  out  every  five  years,  and  it  is  the 
experience  of  every  gardener  that  the  wooden  tables  have 
to  be  removed  every  five  years,  a  very  considerable  item 
of  expense  in  a  large  house.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
first  outlay,  for  brick  and  building  the  walls,  is  much 
more  than  wooden  benches  would  cost,  but  the  brick 
lasts  as  long  as  there  is  a  roof  kept  over  the  house. 
Many  instances  may  be  cited  where  gardeners  have  been, 
and  are  now,  making  the  change  of  substituting  brick 
for  wood  on  the  basis  of  economy.  As  already  stated, 
the  side  beds  are  not  solid,  as  is  the  center  bed,  but  are 
open  for  the  location  of  hot  and  cold  water  pipes,  it 
being  very  desirable,  if  not  necessary,  that  these  pipes 
be  accessible  at  all  points.  The  supports  for  these  side 
tables,  which  are  three  and  one-half  feet  wide,  may  be 
brick  columns  or  wooden  posts,  with  slate  or  boards  for 
the  sides  and  bottom.  The  same  depth  and  quality  of 
soil  should  be  placed  on  the  benches  as  on  the  center 
table.  The  roof  of  the  forcing  house  is  supported  by 
three  lines  of  iron  rods,  or  pipes,  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter,  and  set  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  apart.  One 
of  these  lines  of  support  runs  from  the  ridge-pole  to  the 
center  of  the  middle  bed,  and  the  other  two  from  the 
hip-joint  to  the  edge  of  the  side  beds,  thus  holding 
the  roof  of  the  house.  In  the  construction  of  vegetable- 


MARKET   GARDENING    UNDER  GLASS.  99 

forcing  houses  the  cost  must  naturally  vary  more  or  less 
in  different  localities  on  account  of  labor  and  material, 
the  method  of  building  and  the  finish  put  upon  the 
houses.  Estimates  for  the  construction  of  such  houses 
are  within  the  reach  of  every  gardener,  including  all  the 
appurtenances  to  make  the  houses  complete  for  use. 
Every  horticultural  journal  gives,  in  its  columns,  the 
addresses  of  persons  whose  business  it  is  to  build  houses 
of  this  description,  and  all  other  designs  now  in  common 
use  by  practical,  commercial  gardeners.  In  the  same 
journals  can  be  found  advertisements  of  all  the  leading 
manufacturers  of  heating  apparatus. 

The  approximate  cost  of  a  vegetable  forcing  house, 
erected  upon  system  No.  1,  dimensions  30x250  feet  com- 
plete, will  not  exceed  $4,500.  This  comprises  cost  of 
boiler,  hot  and  cold  water  pipes,  about  $1,700,  and  the 
pipes  and  cocks  for  watering  about  $100  more.  Such  a 
house  may  be  heated  by  hot  water  carried  in  three  lines 
of  three-inch  pipes  running  around  under  the  side  tables, 
or  it  may  be  heated  by  steam,  the  water  being  forced  by 
natural  circulation.  This  amount  of  heating  surface  is 
quite  sufficient  to  keep  the  house  at  a  temperature  rang- 
ing from  40°  to  50°  during  the  most  severe  weather  of 
mid- winter.  In  fact,  all  that  is  really  necessary  the 
coldest  nights  is  to  have  heat  enough  to  keep  frost  out 
of  the  house.  In  growing  and  forcing  vegetables  in 
winter  there  is  nothing  gained  by  having  the  tempera- 
ture higher  than  here  indicated.  It  is,  on  the  contrary, 
detrimental  to  the  healthy  and  vigorous  growth  of 
plants.  In  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  it  will  take 
about  fifteen  tons  of  coal  to  heat  a  house  of  the  size 
described  during  the  cold  months.  The  aim,  in  past 
days,  to  get  a  high  temperature  in  forcing  houses,  was 
one  of  the  serious  and  expensive  mistakes  made  by  gar- 
deners when  such  structures  were  first  substituted  for 
hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  The  want  of  success  and,  at 


100  MARKET   GARDENING. 

times,  the  loss  of  all  or  a  portion  of  the  crop  was,  in  the 
estimation  of  the  more  practical  gardeners  of  the  present 
day,  often  owing  to  overheating.  A  reduced  amount  of 
heat  is  less  expensive,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  results 
are  more  satisfactory.  In  following  the  system  of  mod- 
erate heating  there  is  less  loss  among  soft-leaved  vege- 
tables from  what  gardeners  term  "damping  off."  This 
dreaded  disease  comes  like  a  thief  in  the  night,  and 
works  destruction  with  the  crop.  Instances  are  well 
known  where  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a  crop  of  lettuce, 
in  large  houses,  has  been  destroyed  by  this  "damping 
off"  before  the  plants  were  half  grown.  It  seems  to  be 
the  fashion  nowadays  to  attribute  all  obscure  cases  of 
mortality  of  plants  under  glass  to  "fungoid  growth." 
A  little  science  is  a  dangerous  thing,  and  it  would  often 
be  more  practical  to  attribute  it  to  a  want  of  physical 
strength  consequent  upon  unfavorable  conditions. 

The  modern  method  of  watering  forcing  houses  is 
very  different  now  from  what  it  was  formerly.  In  fact, 
the  present  system  entails  little  labor;  a  half-grown  boy, 
with  good  sense,  can  perform  the  work  without  difficulty. 
A  pipe  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter  connected 
with  the  steam  pump  and  cistern,  and  then  laid  under 
the  side  benches  with  screw-tipped  faucets  arranged  at 
intervals  of  twenty  feet,  so  that  a  rubber  hose  may  be 
attached,  is  the  present  form  of  apparatus.  To  the  end 
of  the  rubber  pipe  should  be  fixed  a  rose,  or  sprinkler, 
twice  or  thrice  as  large  as  the  rose  on  a  large  watering- 
pot  ;  with  this  the  watering  can  be  done  with  ease  and 
rapidity.  The  holes  in  the  rose,  or  nozzle,  should  be 
small,  so  as  to  throw  a  large  and  fine  spray  of  water  over 
the  beds.  The  frequency  of  watering  depends  altogether 
on  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere.  There  are  times 
when  the  beds  should  be  watered  daily,  and,  again,  when 
once  or  twice  a  week  will  be  quite  sufficient.  This  is  a 
matter  that  every  practical  gardener  exercising  common 


MARKET   GARDENING    UNDER   GLASS. J  •  101 

sense  will  soon  settle  in  his  own  mind.  The  beds  should 
be  kept  moist,  without  being  soaked  and  soggy.  As  a 
matter  of  course,  towards  spring,  when  the  sun  is  warm, 
the  beds  will  need  more  moisture  than  in  mid-winter, 
when  the  weather  is  cold  and  cloudy. 

The  estimate  for  labor  for  a  house  of  the  size  de- 
scribed can  only  be  approximately  stated.  Of  course, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  done  inside  of  the  house  from 
June  until  October.  Allowing  a  liberal  compensation, 
the  labor  should  not  exceed  three  hundred  dollars,  and 
this  may  be  considered  an  outside  figure.  With  intelli- 
gent management  and  sufficient  capital  there  is  always 
sure  to  be  a  handsome  profit  realized  on  the  investment. 

Among  the  many  successful  market  gardeners  in 
the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  may  be  named  Messrs.  Mab- 
bit  &  Wiles,  Camden,  N.  J.  This  firm  has  a  tract  of 
six  acres,  nearly  one-half  of  which  is  under  glass,  and  so 
worked  as  to  illustrate  the  profit  which  can  be  had  by 
systematic  management  and  practical  experience.  The 
style  of  construction  of  the  houses  of  this  firm  may  be 
designated  as  system  No.  2. 

The  greater  portion  of  these  houses  have  surface 
beds,  but  some  are  fitted  with  elevated  tables,  these 
being  the  best  for  lettuce,  cress  and  radish,  which,  grown 
in  midwinter,  require  to  be  near  the  light,  but,  as  cauli- 
flower, a  very  important  crop,  a  later  and  taller  plant, 
does  best  on  surface  beds,  much  of  the  lettuce  and  cress 
has  to  be  grown  on  the  level. 

These  houses,  built  upon  the  natural  level,  are 
erected  in  blocks,  the  largest  block  covering  a  space  of 
solid  glass  surface  of  about  200x100  feet.  This  block  is 
composed  of  thirteen  parallel  sections,  the  continuity  of 
the  beds  being  broken  only  by  an  openwork  of  support- 
ing posts  and  foot  walks.  The  width  of  the  houses  in 
this  block  is  sixteen  feet,  elevation  at  the  ridge  eight 
feet,  the  ridge  timbers  being  supported  by  a  line  of  light 


102  MARKET  GARDENING. 

center  posts,  the  side  sills  by  heavy  posts  four  feet  high 
and  five  feet  apart.  These  posts  rest  on  brick  founda- 
tions. At  one  end  of  the  line  of  houses  is  a  glass-roofed 
cross-section  covering  a  footwalk  of  thirty  inches,  and 
covering  also  a  plant  bench  forty  inches  wide  set  against 
the  wall ;  on  this  bench  may  be  raised  any  of  the  small 
crops.  Under  the  bench  mushrooms  are  successfully 
grown,  the  light  being  excluded  by  cloths  hanging  in 
front  and  reaching  to  the  ground,  the  mushroom  spawn 
pricked  out  on  a  level  surface,  the  earth  and  manure 
mixture  being  first  properly  compounded,  and  upon  the 
degree  of  its  proper  preparation  much  depends  the 
measure  of  success. 

The  ventilation  is,  of  course,  a  most  important  sub- 
ject. As  a  rule,  plants  do  not  get  enough  of  it,  but  of 
this  experience  alone  can  be  the  only  guide.  The  glass 
is  thick,  10x12,  put  on  with  oil  and  lead  mixture,  the 
panes  lapping  and  fixed  in  place  by  S  hooks.  The  glass 
selected  is  free  from  blisters.  The  cost  of  such  houses  is 
estimated  at  three  dollars  per  running  foot. 

For  houses  where  the  operations  are  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive to  warrant  the  employment  of  a  night  engineer, 
steam,  as  the  heating  agent,  is  found  to  be  more  efficient 
than  hot  water,  as  by  steam  perfect  control  of  the  tem- 
perature can  be  had,  but,  in  houses  so  small  as  not  to 
profitably  sustain  the  expense  of  a  night  engineer,  hot 
water  is  recommended ;  as  the  water  well  heated  up  at 
bed-time  may,  with  banked  fires  in  the  furnace,  be  relied 
upon  to  sustain  a  safe  temperature  till  morning. 

The  heating  system  in  the  houses  under  considera- 
tion is  by  four  six-inch  steam  pipes  passing  through  each 
house,  of  sixteen  feet  in  width,  such  pipes  carried  about 
eight  inches  above  the  level  of  the  surface  beds.  Pro- 
tection from  wind  is  a  valuable  factor  in  the  economical 
heating  of  a  forcing  house,  as  in  bleak  situations  more 
than  double  the  coal  is  required  than  is  consumed  in  shel- 


MARKET  GARDENING  UNDER  GLASS.  103 

tered  situations.  The  plant  beds  are  watered  by  a  hose 
which  is  attached  to  a  three-inch  supply  pipe  running 
along  the  passage  at  one  end  of  the  houses. 

The  soil  used  in  these  houses  is  removed  every  year 
and  spread  in  extensive  chicken  pens,  where  it  is 
scratched  over  and  worked  up  by  the  fowls,  which  ex- 
terminate all  insect  life,  while  at  the  same  time  fertiliz- 
ing and  ameliorating  the  mass.  The  plant  beds,  after 
being  excavated,  are  filled  in  with  earth  from  the  chicken 
pens,  where  it  has  already  been  worked  over  by  fowls. 
The  manure  used  is  finely  decayed  stable  manure  or 
compost,  the  elements  of  which  are  of  little  consequence, 
BO  that  they  be  thoroughly  decayed  and  in  fine  condition. 
Of  course,  the  usual  precautions  are  taken  to  keep  in 
subjection  lice  and  other  insects.  Fumigation  by  burn- 
ing tobacco  stems  is  cheap  and  effective  if  not  overdone. 

Three  good  paying  crops  raised  in  glass  houses  are 
considered  a  full  success,  often  only  two  are  really  prof- 
itable. The  rotation  of  crops  is,  first,  lettuce,  which, 
when  removed,  is  followed  by  radish,  and,  when  an  inch 
high,  if  on  the  level,  may  have  set  out  among  it  cauli- 
flower plants.  The  variety  of  lettuce  found  most  relia- 
ble is  Boston  Market,  which  has  a  good  leaf  and  carries 
well ;  of  radish  for  shipment,  the  Carmine  Globe  is  of 
good  form  and  color,  though  there  is  a  large  demand  in 
Philadelphia  for  a  small  early  white  turnip  radish.  Of 
cauliflower,  the  extra  early  Erfurt  is  a  quick  and  reliable 
variety.  Other  crops  are  grown  in  considerable  breadth, 
water  cress,  parsley,  French  sorrel,  mint  and  tomatoes, 
often  bringing  sixty  to  seventy-five  cents  per  pound. 
The  laborers  required  in  a  house  covering  a  square  of 
twenty  thousand  feet  is  from  five  to  ten  men. 

The  commercial  gardener  who  has  the  capital  and 
ability  to  carry  on  an  extensive  system  of  vegetable  gar- 
dening under  glass,  thoughtfully  secures  a  line  of  direct 
customers  for  his  products  by  making  contracts  with 


104  MARKET   GARDENING. 

hotels,  restaurants  and  club  houses,  not  depending  upon 
the  chance  sales  of  commission  merchants.  Such  con- 
tracts as  referred  to  cannot  be  obtained  by  a  small  pro- 
ducer, as  his  crop  is  too  limited  and  too  transient  to 
command  the  confidence  of  a  large  daily  consumer  who 
cannot  afford  to  run  any  chances  of  supply. 

The  highest  price  obtained  for  head  lettuce  is  gen- 
erally in  the  month  of  March,  when  they  sometimes 
bring  seven  dollars  per  one  hundred.  Small  red  radishes 
sell  highest  in  January  and  February,  when  they  often 
bring  forty  cents  per  one  hundred,  put  up  in  bunches  of 
twelve.  Cauliflowers  are  most  profitable  in  March  and 
April,  and  they  frequently  bring  fifty  cents  each.  Of 
course,  it  is  understood  that  all  vegetables,  especially 
those  forced  under  glass,  are  in  best  condition  immedi- 
ately after  pulling  or  cutting,  but  it  may  be  profitable  to 
know  the  maximum  extent  of  time  during  the  cool 
months,  during  which  hothouse  vegetables  can  be  trans- 
ported in  satisfactory  condition.  This  period  for  lettuce, 
cauliflower  and  radishes,  from  two  to  three  days,  pro- 
vided they  are  carefully  packed. 

Plan  No.  3.  The  style  of  construction  of  houses 
under  system  No.  3  is  the  design  of  a  market  gardener 
of  Camden,  N.  J.,  Mr.  Rodolphus  Bingham,  who  has 
built  a  very  cheap  forcing  house  for  vegetables,  the 
framework  of  which  any  farmer  can  erect.  The  house 
may  be  single,  or  better,  double.  The  sills  are  laid 
upon  the  natural  earth  thirteen  feet  apart,  kept  from 
spreading  by  stakes  driven  on  the  outside,  the  rafters 
and  ridge  erected,  the  sash  laid  on,  and  the  work  is 
done,  except  placing  boiler  with  furnace  and  fitting  hot 
water  pipes.  The  advantages  claimed  by  Mr.  Bingham 
for  this  plan  are  : 

First — A  saving  in  cost  of  construction  by  doing 
away  with  all  supporting  posts  or  walls. 

Second — A  saving  of  heat  by  placing  the  furnace 


MARKET   GARDENING   UNDER   GLASS.  105 

and  boiler  in  a  pit  in  the  center  of  the  house,  so  that  all 
radiated  heat  may  be  utilized. 

Third — Carrying  the  smoke  flues  from  the  furnace 
the  entire  length  of  the  house,  and  beneath  one  of  the 
beds  if  the  house  be  a  double  one ;  then  carrying  the 
smoke  beneath  the  middle  sill,  provided  the  length  is 
not  more  than  one  hundred  feet  in  each  direction,  so  as 
to  get  all  the  heat  out  of  the  smoke  which  otherwise 
would  pass  out  of  the  stack. 

Fourth — By  keeping  the  glass  down  near  the  beds 
the  volume  of  air  to  be  heated  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

Fifth — By  carrying  hot  water  pipes,  in  large  air 
flues,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
plant  beds,  the  tops  of  the  flues  planked  over  with  open 
joints,  so  that  a  large  volume  of  warmed  air  may  pass 
upward  through  the  soil.  By  the  several  plans  of  under- 
ground heating  Mr.  Bingham  claims  that  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  heat  wasted  in  other  houses  is  saved,  and  in  the 
health  of  the  plant  is  found  a  practical  application  of 
the  rule  relating  to  human  hygiene — that  to  most  fully 
preserve  health  it  is  best  to  keep  the  "feet  warm  and 
the  head  cool." 

For  ventilation,  one  or  all  the  outside  sashes  may  be 
pulled  down,  or  off,  that  on  warm  days  the  plants  may 
be  literally  turned  out  of  doors  to  free  air  and  direct 
sunshine.  The  rafters  and  caps  are  of  original  design, 
and  the  entire  arrangement  is  claimed  as  a  combination 
of  many  of  the  best  principles  of  forcing  house  construc- 
tion. The  joints  are  so  made  as  to  be  very  thoroughly 
air  tight.  The  surface  of  the  beds  is  nearer  the  glass 
than  in  other  plant  houses,  the  roof  structure  being  set 
down  upon  the  natural  surface  of  the  earth ;  the  house, 
in  fact,  being  nothing  but  a  roof  or  combination  of 
roofs,  the  paths  under  the  ridge  being  excavated  twenty- 
four  inches  deep  in  the  solid  earth,  the  plant  beds  being 


106  MARKET   GARDENING. 

upon  the  surface  near  the  glass,  at  a  convenient  distance 
for  working,  and  all  within  an  .arms  length. 

The  mechanical  work,  except  boiler-setting  and 
pipe-fitting,  may  all  be  completed  in  the  sash  factory, 
and*  readily  set  up  or  taken  down  by  any  farmer.  The 
beds  are  five  feet  six  inches  wide.  The  entire  structure 
map  be  taken  apart  in  summer  and  stored  away.  In  the 
autumn  the  sills  may  be  laid,  the  roof-frame  erected, 
the  sash  put  on,  and  the  house  used  for  plants  till  early 
spring,  when  the  beds  may  be  set  full  with  cauliflowers, 
tomato  or  egg  plant,  and  six  weeks  earlier  than  would 
be  safe  outside,  and  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  the 
sash,  caps  and  rafters  may  be  removed,  and  the  crops 
cultivated  and  matured  far  in  advance  of  any  in  the 
garden. 

Mr.  Bingham  has  now  two  houses  26x250  feet  which 
he  erected  in  the  middle  of  January  over  ground  frozen 
seven  inches  deep,  in  which  he  set  many  thousands  of 
plants  as  fast  as  the  ground  was  thawed.  These  he  has 
carried  through  severe  weather,  ranging  down  to  zero, 
with  less  than  one-half  in  cost  of  coal  used  in  other 
houses  of  the  same  surface.  From  the  1st  to  the  9th 
and  from  the  13th  to  the  15th  of  February,  when  the 
thermometer  ranged  down  as  low  as  20°  Fahrenheit  at 
sunrise,  he  had  no  fire  in  the  furnace,  the  warmth  in 
the  ground,  with  the  sunlight,  being  sufficient  to  keep 
the  plants  growing  and  in  healthy  condition.  Such  a 
house  is  more  simple  to  work  than  more  expensive  struc- 
tures, and  costs  30  per  cent,  less  to  build  and  requires 
but  50  per  cent,  of  the"  heating  power. 

Farmers  who  have  ordinary  hotled  sashes  may  use 
them,  on  the  frame  of  such  a  house,  but,  as  a  rule,  such 
sashes  are  made  of  glass  far  too  small,  the  many  bars  and 
joints  arresting  too  much  sunlight.  The  best  modern 
sashes  are  made  with  glass  not  less  than  12x16  inches. 
The  sash  bars  should  be  narrow,  the  glass  not  put  in 


MARKET   GARDENING    UNDER   GLASS.  107 

with  putty  but  with  white  lead  and  oil  mixed  to  a  syrupy 
consistency  and  applied  with  an  oil  can.  Those  who 
use  long  broad  glass  will  all  testify  to  the  very  great 
advantage  of  doing  away  with  all  possible  obstructions 
to  light. 

In  the  most  rudimentary  work  as  well  as  in  higher 
class  gardening,  a  house  of  this  design  will  be  found 
practical  for  efficiency,  cheapness,  easy  heating,  and,  to 
the  farmer  accustomed  to  the  inclement  work  of  manag- 
ing winter  and  spring  hotbeds,  it  will  be  found  to  save 
much  uncomfortable  exposure.  The  maximum  of  eleva- 
tion is  six  and  one-half  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  foot- 
walk,  which  is  a  trench  two  feet  deep  cut  out  of  the 
solid  earth,  this  reducing  the  volume  of  air  to  be  heated, 
as  many  houses  have  too  much  overhead  space,  and 
therefore  are  very  expensive  to  heat. 

Novices  in  gardening  under  glass  cannot  expect  to 
immediately  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  practiced 
by  professional  men  who  have  given  years  of  close  study 
to  the  development  of  the  best  methods  of  forcing  plants. 
In  order  to  reap  the  largest  returns  from  vegetable  forc- 
ing houses  the  beds  should  be  ready  to  plant  by  the  end 
of  September,  not  later  than  the  first  week  in  October. 
The  soil  for  the  beds  should  be  naturally  of  good  texture, 
and  incorporated  with  a  liberal  amount  of  short,  well- 
rotted  stable  manure  that  has  been  composted  and  thor- 
oughly worked  over,  so  that  the  coarser  fiber  of  the 
straw  or  litter  has  disappeared.  To  get  this  condition, 
which  is  very  essential,  the  manure  will  have  to  be  in  a 
fermenting  heap  for  nine  to  twelve  months  before  it  is 
thoroughly  fit  to  use.  Garden  soil,  or  old  sods,  still 
better,  a  good  percentage  of  peat,  mixed  in  with  the 
manure,  will  add  to  its  value  for  the  purposed  needed. 
Gardeners  located  near  large  cities  obtain  street  sweep- 
ings from  the  streets  where  horses  stand ;  this  they  mix 
in  with  the  short  stable  manure,  the  mass  forming,  when 


108  MARKET   GAKDENING. 

thoroughly  decomposed,  a  rich  black  mold,  an  excellent 
fertilizer.  Some  gardeners  make  use  of  a  light  applica- 
tion of  superphosphate  of  lime  and  of  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizer, as  dried  meat  and  blood,  before  planting  the 
beds.  But  the  main  reliance  is  best  placed  upon  the 
compost  heap.  Those  who  water  with  enriched  water 
find  one  ounce  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  to  five  gallons  of 
water  to  be  an  excellent  application  for  lettuce,  while 
for  radishes,  two  ounces  of  dried  blood  to  five  gallons  of 
water  produce  the  best  results.  Before  planting,  the 
soil  on  the  beds  should  be  worked  over  and  pulverized, 
the  surface  made  smooth  and  level.  Lettuce  is  gener- 
ally the  first  crop,  and  set  with  a  dibble  at  seven  to 
eight  inches  apart  each  way.  This  part  of  the  operation 
requires  no  great  skill,  outside  of  getting  the  lines 
straight  and  setting  the  plants  at  proper  depth  and  at 
proper  distances  apart,  the  lines  being  parallel  to  each 
other  in  both  directions.  This  is  essential,  so  that  at 
times  when  the  surface  crusts,  it  can  be  loosened  each 
way  by  the  use  of  small  scuffle  hoes.  This  operation 
may  be  found  necessary  two  or  three  times  during  the 
growth  of  the  plants. 

Practical  gardeners  know  that  none  of  the  curled- 
leaved  varieties  of  lettuce  will  stand  forcing  under  glass. 
This  is  so  well  understood  that  those  having  any  experi- 
ence never  plant  any  of  the  curled  sorts  in  a  vegetable 
forcing  house.  The  varieties  which  will  succeed  best 
for  these  purposes  are  Forcing,  Tennis  Ball,  Silver  Ball, 
Bloomsdale  Eeliable,  Boston  Market  and  Big  Boston. 
The  first  two  kinds  are  compact  in  growth,  while  all 
make  good  heads  under  glass,  and  they  are,  without 
doubt,  the  most  profitable  sorts  to  grow.  The  experi- 
enced gardener  purchases  his  seeds  only  from  seed 
merchants  of  established  reputation. 

To  secure  plants  for  the  first  crop  the  seed  should 
be  sown  in  a  sheltered  space  in  the  garden,  say  six  weeks 


MARKET   GARDENING    UNDER   GLASS.  109 

before  the  time  for  planting,  August  15th  or  September 
1st,  for  example.  For  the  second  and  third  crops  the 
seed  may  be  sown  under  glass  in  a  corner  of  one  of  the 
houses  a  month  before  the  plants  are  wanted  for  setting 
out.  It  is  always  a  safe  plan  to  sow  an  abundance  of 
seed,  for  very  often  a  portion  of  the  plants  in  the  seed 
bed  meet  with  some  mishap,  cutting  the  supply  short 
when  it  is  too  late  to  replenish  the  stock  in  good  time. 
If  the  houses  are  kept  at  the  proper  temperature,  the 
first  crop  planted,  say  October  1st,  will  be  ready  for 
market  in  seven  to  eight  weeks  from  the  time  of  plant- 
ing. This  will  give  an  abundance  of  time  to  raise  three 
crops  of  lettuce  between  October  1st  and  the  latter  part 
of  March.  This  is  allowing  considerable  margin  for 
harvesting  eacli  crop,  and  to  make  the  necessary  prepa- 
rations for  planting.  This  preparation  of  the  beds  for 
the  second  and  third  crops  is  similar  to  the  first,  with 
the  exception  that,  if  manure  is  applied  freely  for  the 
first,  the  soil  will  be  rich  enough  to  'mature  the  three 
crops  without  any  addition,  except,  perhaps,  a  little 
amrnoniacal  fertilizer  as  a  stimulant.  This  should  be 
scattered  on  and  raked  in  during  the  preparation  for  the 
second  and  third  crops.  The  rapid  and  uniform  growth 
of  lettuce  depends  largely  on  the  quality  of  the  soil  in 
which  it  is  set,  and  the  judicious  management  of  the 
house,  in  heating  and  watering.  There  is  no  use  in 
starting  a  crop  under  glass  with  poor,  hungry  soil ;  there 
should  be  no  doubt  on  this  question  of  fertility,  for  with- 
out it  all  efforts  at  culture  will  fail.  If  the  gardener  has 
a  number  of  forcing  houses  under  his  control,  he  should 
not  plant  too  much  of  one  kind  at  a  time,  but  at  inter- 
vals of  one  or  two  weeks,  so  that  his  whole  crop  will  not 
mature  at  the  same  time,  as  it  throws  too  much  work 
upon  him  at  once,  and  possibly  at  an  unprofitable  period. 
Instead  of  a  third  crop  of  lettuce,  some  gardeners  sow  a 
crop  of  radishes.  As  a  rule,  the  receipts  from  a  crop  of 


110  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

radishes  will  amount  to  about  the  same  as  from  a  third 
crop  of  lettuce,  which,  of  course,  is  always  less  than  the 
first  or  second  crop. 

A  week  or  two  before  the  last  crop  of  letture  is 
ready  for  market,  hills  for  cucumbers  may  be  made  six 
to  eight  feet  apart  in  the  beds,  and  the  seeds  planted. 
The  lettuce  is  out  of  the  way  long  before  the  cucumbers 
begin  to  run  and  need  room.  Cucumbers  planted  in 
this  manner  come  into  market  at  the  same  time  others 
arrive  from  Florida  and  Chaiiestown.  The  forced  cu- 
cumbers sell  freely  for  twice  as  much  as  those  coming 
from  the  South,  being  fresh  and  crisp,  while  the  others 
are  not.  When  the  cucumbers  are  taken  off,  the  houses 
are  given  rest  for  the  balance  of  the  summer,  unless  the 
market  is  such  as  to  warrant  those  usually  less  profitable 
crops,  such  as  asparagus,  egg  plant,  tomatoes,  rhubarb, 
parsley,  sorrel,  chives  and  strawberries. 

Aphis,  or  Green  Fly. — Among  the  most  serious 
annoyances  to  the  indoor  gardener  is  the  "green  fly." 
Fumigating  with  tobacco  leaves  is  the  most  general  rem- 
edy. This  operation  has  to  be  repeated  twice  a  week  as 
long  as  any  flies  remain.  The  most  simple,  and  an 
effective  method  of  fumigating,  is  to  have  a  number  of 
small  sheet  iron  cones,  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
high,  and  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter,  each  having 
a  grate  near  the  botton,  an  opening  to  give  draft,  and  a 
damper  to  regulate  the  draft.  In  each  place  a  charge  of 
damp  tobacco  stems  and  wood  shavings,  and  set  them  in 
different  parts  of  the  house,  igniting  all  at  the  same 
time.  This  will  be  found  the  best  and  most  effectual 
way  to  apply  the  tobacco,  using  about  two  pounds  of 
dry  tobacco  to  every  one  thousand  feet  of  glass. 

Profits  from  Forcing  Houses. — The  profits  from 
this  branch  of  market  gardening  depend  largely  upon 
the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  gardener.  The  first 
and  second  crops  of  lettuce,  if  planted  at  the  dates 


MARKET   GARDENING   UNDER   GLASS.  Ill 

named,  and  well  grown,  with  crisp,  solid  heads,  may 
sell  at  wholesale  at  from  seventy-five  cents  to  a  dollar  a 
dozen,  or  from  four  to  five  dollars  a  barrel.  The  third 
crop  sells  for  less,  say  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  cents  a 
dozen.  Clean,  perforated  barrels  are  best  for  shipping 
lettuce,  and  when  carefully  packed  the  lettuce  will  keep 
fresh  for  a  week.  There  are  times  when  general  business 
is  dull  and  prices  fall  below  these  figures,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  times  when  there  is  a  good  demand;  then 
prices  are  higher  than  those  named. 

The  house  under  system  No.  4  may  be  of  the  same 
construction  as  either  Nos.  1,  2  and  3,  but  diffeisfrom 
them  in  being  without  any  apparatus  for  heating.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  properly  termed  a  sun  house.  It  is 
an  improvement  upon  the  "cold  frame"  long  used  for 
growing  vegetables  for  early  winter  and  spring  use.  By 
the  old  system  of  cold  frames,  only  one  crop  of  lettuce 
could  be  grown.  The  plants  were  set  late  in  autumn, 
and  the  crop  so  handled  as  to  be  ready  for  market  early 
the  following  spring,  a  month  or  six  weeks  before  crops 
are  produced  in  the  open  garden.  But  now,  in  sun 
houses,  modern  practical  gardeners  have  a  new  and  im- 
proved method  of  raising  lettuce  under  glass  without 
artificial  heat.  This  new  method,  although  more  expen- 
sive for  the  first  outlay  and  construction,  has,  after  sev- 
eral years  of  experience,  proved  to  be  more  certain  and 
profitable  in  the  long  run  than  houses  provided  with 
artificial  heat,  and  it  is  asserted,  by  those  who  have  such 
houses  in  full  operation,  that,  considering  the  difference 
in  the  first  cost,  they  are  more  profitable  than  those 
equipped  with  the  most  modern  heating  apparatus.  In 
these  houses  three  crops  of  lettuce  can  be  grown  in  a 
season,  while  with  those  furnished  with  artificial  heat 
only  two,  often  only  one,  additional  crop  can  be  grown 
with  profit. 

Sun  houses  may  be  built  on  the  same  plan- and  of 
the  same  dimensions  as  any  of  the  forcing  houses  de- 


112  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

scribed,  the  only  difference  being  that  there  is  no  method 
of  heating  introduced,  and  that  the  plant  beds  are  all 
on  solid  earth,  never  on  raised  benches ;  the  only  ex- 
pense over  construction  being  the  introduction  of  labor- 
saving  methods  for  watering  with  rubber  hose.  This 
watering  apparatus  may  be  identical  with  that  recom- 
mended for  forcing  houses. 

Before  setting  out  lettuce,  of  course  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  have  the  soil  in  the  beds  worked  up  to  a  rich 
and  mellow  condition.  Every  practical  gardener  knows 
full  well  that  this  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  insure 
success ;  if  neglected,  or  but  half  done,  failure  is  almost 
certain  to  follow.  To  the  intelligent  market  gardener 
this  hint  is  superfluous,  but  it  is  a  subject  of  primary 
importance  to  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  begin- 
ner. The  same  preparation  and  proportion  of  soil  and 
manure  recommended  for  beds  in  the  forcing  house 
should  be  used  for  plant  beds  in  sun  houses. 

Market  gardeners,  as  a  class,  are  just  awakening  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  more  money  to  be  made  in  working 
these  sun  houses  than  the  more  expensive  heated  houses, 
furnished  with  modern  heating  furnaces,  boilers  and 
pipes.  Owing  to  this  fact,  a  very  large  number  of  sun 
houses  have  been  built  during  the  last  three  or  four 
years  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia.  It  seems,  also, 
needless  to  say  that  these  houses  are  profitable,  and  in 
every  respect  more  desirable  than  the  old-fashioned  cold 
frames  or  boxes.  Truckers,  or  market  gardeners,  operat- 
ing on  the  northern  line  of  the  cotton  belt  will,  no 
doubt,  find  in  that  comparatively  mild  section  a  favora- 
ble location  for  sun  houses,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
near  enough  to  the  northern  cities  to  be  able  to  deliver 
their  vegetables  in  good  condition. 


CHAPTEE  XVIII. 
CELEKY. 

The  best  soil  for  celery  is  muck.  Sandy  loam  is 
also  very  good,  but  requires  heavy  fertilizing,  as  celery 
is  a  rank  feeder.  A  swamp,  well  drained  and  in  good 
tilth,  will  grow  strong  celery.  Muck  soil,  that  will  grow 
a  crop  of  onions  or  potatoes,  will  grow  a  succeeding  crop 
of  celery  the  same  season.  On  sandy  loam  the  same 
thing  can  be  done,  with  the  addition  of  a  good  dressing 
of  stable  manure.  Celery  is  usually  grown  as  a  second 
crop,  after  early  peas,  beets,  onions,  early  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, and  sometimes  cabbage;  the  ground  for  these 
crops  should  always  be  heavily  dressed  the  previous 
autumn  with  good  barnyard  manure.  Celery  plants  are 
often  set  out  on  potato  ground  before  the  potatoes  are 
dug,  every  third  row  of  the  potatoes  being  omitted. 
The  cultivation  of  the  ground  for  potatoes  is  good  prep- 
aration for  celery.  In  hoeing,  a  trench  is  made  at  the 
place  of  the  omitted  rows,  in  which — about  the  middle — 
a  double  row  of  celery  plants  is  set.  Market  gardeners 
generally  confine  themselves  to  growing  one  or  two  vari- 
eties proven  to  be  profitable  and  salable,  their  object 
being  to  put  on  the  market  an  article  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  tender,  crisp  and  solid.  The  dwarf  sorts  are  now 
more  extensively  raised  than  the  large,  for  the  reason 
that,  in  quality,  they  are  every  way  as  good,  and  require 
less  field  space,  besides  being  easier  to  work. 

Years  ago,  under  the  laborious  and  expensive  method 
of  cultivation,  celery  was  not  a  very  profitable  crop  ;  but 
within  the  past  twenty  years  the  acreage  and  profits 

113 


114  MARKET   GARDENING. 

have  increased,  under  the  new  and  improved  system  of 
"flat  culture/'  the  old  method  of  deep  trenching  having 
been  discarded.  A  brief  description,  in  way  of  history, 
will  suffice  for  the  old  system,  which  enlightened  gar- 
deners now  never  follow  : 

The  seed  was  sown  in  a  hotbed  in  March,  and  the 
plants  pricked  out  into  temporary  beds  before  final  trans- 
planting to  give  them  greater  strength.  In  June  and 
July,  as  needed  for  successive  crops,  trenches  were  dug 
five  feet  apart,  about  eight  to  ten  and  fifteen  inches 
wide.  The  soil  in  the  bottom  of  each  trench  was  thor- 
oughly and  deeply  mixed  with  manure  forked  in.  The 
plants  were  set  out  in  the  deep  trenches  at  distances  of 
five  to  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  earthing  up 
was  much  the  same  as  now  practiced. 

There  can  be  no  fixed  date  for  sowing,  which  is  now 
done  in  the  open  garden  or  field,  the  time  depending 
upon  the  state  of  the  season  and  location  of  the  planter. 
Usually,  in  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia,  the  ground  is 
fit  to  receive  the  seed  about  April  1st.  There  need  be 
no  particular  hurry  to  get  it  in  very  early,  except  to  get 
the  start  of  weeds  and  the  benefit  of  spring  showers. 
The  seed  germinates  slowly,  is  one  of  the  smallest  the 
gardener  uses,  and  the  plant,  at  the  beginning,  is  a  frail, 
tiny  little  thing.  Even  small  lumps  of  earth  resting 
upon  seeds  or  plants,  at  this  stage,  .will  certainly  retard, 
if  not  effectually  prevent,  growth.  For  these  reasons 
the  preparation  of  the  ground,  previous  to  sowing,  should 
be  done  in  a  more  thorough  manner  than  for  larger 
seeds.  The  soil  should  be  rich  from  heavy  manuring 
the  previous  year,  or  from  thoroughly  rotted  dung, 
spread  over  the  land  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch. 

The  work  of  preparation  and  sowing  of  a  celery  bed 
is  best  done  at  a  time  when  all  the  operations  will  be 
completed  in  one  day,  the  manure  being  spread  and 
worked  under  before  the  sun  has  dried  it,  and  the  seed 


CELERY.  115 

put  in  while  the  earth  is  in  that  state  of  moisture  imme- 
diately following  plowing.  It  is  best  sown  in  rows,  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  deep  and  ten  inches  apart,  and  dis- 
tributed thinly.  If  the  weather  is  damp  the  seed  should 
not  be  covered ;  if  dry,  the  bed  should  be  gently  patted 
with  a  piece  of  board,  to  solidify  the  soil  and  hasten  ger- 
mination. If  sown  in  beds  broadcast,  the  seed  should 
be  mixed  with  dry  sand  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  five,  facili- 
tating evenness  of  distribution.  Transplant  when  three 
inches  high.  When  in  rows,  as  soon  as  the  young  plants 
appear,  cultivate  between  the  rows  with  a  narrow  garden 
rake  at  least  twice  a  week,  weeds  or  no  weeds.  When 
well  established,  the  plants  should  be  thinned  to  one  or 
two  inches,  or  all  taken  up  and  transplanted  in  rows  ten 
inches  apart,  two  inches  between  the  plants. 

The  ground,  having  been  heavily  manured  in  the 
spring  for  early  crops  of  cabbages  and  other  vegetables, 
still  contains  a  large  percentage  of  plant  food,  which  is 
available  for  celery  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  In 
gardens  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation  an  extra  ma- 
nuring is  not  necessary,  for,  although  celery  is  a  rank 
feeder,  there  is  generally  enough  fertilizing  matter  left 
from  the  preceding  manuring  to  grow  the  crop.  When 
the  celery  field  is  plowed  and  harrowed  thorougly,  the 
rows  should  be  marked  out ;  for  the  large  kinds  five  feet 
apart,  for  the  dwarf  three  feet,  and  for  that  portion  of 
the  crop  which  is  to  be  stored  in  trenches  for  winter  use, 
distances  are  narrowed  about  a  foot,  as  this  celery  will 
not  be  earthed  up. 

In  small  fields  the  rows  are  best  made  by  stretching 
a  cord  across  the  field.  A  stick  is  then  drawn  along  the 
line  to  mark  the  row,  or,  if  the  ground  is  in  nice  order, 
the  line  may  be  patted  with  a  spade,  the  impression  of 
the  line  being  left  in  the  soil.  On  large  fields  the  mark- 
ing out  is  best  done  with  a  horse  marker  or  sled.  A 
marker  can  be  made  to  draw  three  rows  at  a  time,  teeth 


116  MARKET   GARDENING. 

or  runners  V-shaped,  three  feet  long,  twelve  inches  deep, 
and  four  or  five  inches  wide  at  the  rear  end.  The  driver 
rides,  and  the  rows,  when  opened,  are  about  two  inches 
deep  and  four  inches  wide. 

Before  a  crop  of  celery  can  be  expected  to  grow  lux- 
uriantly, the  land  must  be  prepared  thoroughly.  This 
previous  cultivation  for  celery  must  include  deep  cul- 
ture. Celery  roots  demand  plenty  of  room.  The  writer 
has  walked  over  a  celery  field  after  potatoes,  where  plants 
had  been  set  out  four  weeks,  and,  by  digging  down 
twelve  inches,  found  celery  roots  filling  all  the  soil. 
Get  the  cultivation  deep ;  carry  the  manure  along  and 
keep  weeds  out  of  sight,  and,  where  possible,  irrigate 
during  dry  seasons. 

Transplanting  may  be  done  in  the  latter  part  of 
June  for  early  crops,  but  celery  grown  in  market  gardens 
as  a  second  crop  is  not  usually  put  in  until  the  ground  is 
entirely  cleared  of  the  preceding  crops.  The  cabbages  and 
other  vegetables  being  disposed  of  early  in  July,  the 
celery  planting  can  then  begin.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
forward  celery  for  marketing  in  the  early  autumn,  be- 
cause there  is  not  much  demand  for  it  until  poultry 
appears  in  market.  About  the  15th  of  July  to  middle 
of  August  is  usually,  in  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia,  the 
season  for  transplanting  out  in  the  field ;  but  the  first 
weeks  of  July  give  best  results,  the  plants  having  the 
help  of  July  rains  in  their  new  position,  while  later  set- 
ting must  sometimes  be  followed  by  irrigation. 

The  transplanting  may  be  all  done  at  once,  or  in 
two  or  three  successive  crops.  In  midsummer  there  is, 
as  a  rule,  but  little  rain,  while  wet  weather  is  desirable, 
for  the  planting  can  be  not  only  better  done  in  rainy 
weather,  but  the  plants  need  the  excess  of  moisture  to 
enable  them  to  take  root  during  a  season  of  heat.  Every 
arrangement  should,  therefore,  be  made  beforehand,  so 
that  a  seasonable  rain  may  be  taken  advantage  of.  In 


CELERY.  117 

fact,  the  whole  business  requires,  and  should  receive, 
much  thought  and  judicious  management,  and  all  the 
operations  should  be  conducted  in  a  thoroughly  sys- 
tematic manner. 

"When  transplanting  time  is  decided  upon  the  plants 
have  to  be  dug  with  spade  or  trowel,  and  trimmed,  root 
and  top,  before  they  are  set  out.  The  digging  and  trim- 
ming is  an  operation  taking  time,  and,  before  planting 
begins,  enough  plants  must  be  got  ready  to  start  the 
planters,  and  the  work  of  trimming  keep  pace  with  the 
planting.  Have  ready  a  large  pail  of  mud,  earth  and 
water,  stirred  to  the  consistency  of  cream ;  in  this  dip 
the  roots,  using  only  large  strong  plants.  Drop  the 
plants  in  the  freshly  opened  row,  six  inches  apart.  If 
the  ground  be  in  good  friable  condition,  and  moist,  a 
quick  man  following  a  boy  to  drop,  will  set  out  eigh  fc 
thousand  plants  a  day  and  do  it  well.  One  quick  move- 
ment of  the  two  hands  will  draw  moist  earth  about  the 
roots  of  a  plant  lying  in  the  row,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
set  it  upright.  Another  brush  of  the  hands  will  cover 
this  moist  earth  with  loose,  dry  earth,  to  level  the 
ground.  Attention  is  called,  at  this  point,  to  double 
rows,  which  are  grown  at  less  expense  than  two  distinct 
single  rows.  Double  row  culture  gives  good  results,  as 
to  the  quantity  of  product,  affording  place  for  double 
the  amount  on  an  acre,  but,  of  course,  is  never  to  be 
undertaken  except  in  ground  fully  able  in  richness  to 
develop  such  a  crop.  In  double  rows  the  plants  are  set 
six  inches  apart,  and  the  two  rows  six  inches  distant 
from  each  other,  with  four  feet  between  each  set  of  rows. 
Thus,  in  an  acre  of  43,560  square  feet,  with  equal  sides, 
there  is  place  for  fifty-two  row  spaces,  and  each  single  row 
will  contain  416  plants ;  a  double  row  832.  ;  832x52= 
43,264  plants  per  acre,  set  as  above  described.  On 
muck,  two  acres,  the  writer  has  known  75,000  celery 
plants  grown  successfully  year  after  year.  Hot  south 


118  MARKET   GAKDENING. 

and  west  winds  have  to  be  guarded  against,  because, 
under  their  influence,  moisture  disappears  from  the  soil 
as  rapidly  as  from  a  burning  brick  kiln,  and  all  surface- 
rooted  vegetation  comes  to  a  complete  standstill.  To 
guard  against  injurious  winds  a  tight  board  fence  eight 
feet  high  can  be  erected  with  profit.  The  preparation 
of  celery  ground  should  always  include  some  plan  for 
providing  moisture,  especially  if  in  a  section  of  country 
where  dry  weather  prevails  in  August. 

A  row  of  tanks,  each  thirty-six  inches  wide,  thirty 
inches  deep  and  fourteen  feet  long  stands  at  the  head 
or  most  elevated  portion  of  a  profitable  celery  garden, 
known  to  the  writer.  The  tanks  are  connected  at  the 
ends  by  short  tin  spouts.  They  are  set  on  trestles,  the 
first  twenty  inches  above  the  ground,  the  second  two 
inches  lower,  and  so  on  to  the  last.  A  windwill,  erected 
over  a  large  well  close  by,  pumps  water  into  the  highest 
tank,  and,  when  full,  it  overflows  into  the  next,  and  on, 
until  all  are  full.  On  the  side  of  each  tank,  close  to  the 
bottom,  a  one  and  a  half  inch  hole  is  bored  opposite 
each  row  of  celery,  and  tight  plugs  inserted.  When  the 
celery  begins  to  show  signs  of  suffering,  for  want  of 
moisture,  the  windmill  is  set  to  work  and  the  tanks  filled. 
At  sunset  the  plugs  are  knocked  out,  the  waters  gush 
forth,  striking  on  pieces  of  board,  and  flow  down  the 
celery  trenches.  This  is  repeated  the  following  evening. 
Every  third  evening  is  passed  and  the  harrow  run 
between  the  rows.  Irrigation  is  continued  while  the 
drouth  lasts,  and  the  celery  invariably  makes  a  splendid 
growth. 

About  the  10th  of  September  begins  the  handling 
of  that  portion  of  the  crop  intended  for  the  early  mar- 
ket. One  man  drawing  the  loose  soil  toward  the  plants 
with  a  hoe,  another  grasping  the  entire  plant  with  his 
right  hand,  holding  it  straight  up,  the  stalks  close 
together,  drawing  the  earth  against  it  with  his  left,  then 


CELERY.  119 

holding  the  plant  in  his  left  hand,  packing  the  earth 
around  it  with  his  right.  With  a  little  practice,  this 
operation  is  performed  very  rapidly.  A  double  shovel 
plow  may  be  profitably  run  between  the  rows  a  few 
times,  to  loosen  up  the  soil,  which  is  drawn  toward  the 
plants  as  required.  The  finishing  touch  is  given  with 
the  spade,  the  earth  being  banked  clear  to  the  top  of 
the  plants. 

That  part  of  the  crop  intended  for  the  winter  mar- 
ket is  handled  the  same  as  the  other,  but  is  earthed  up 
only  with  the  hoe,  the  blanching  being  done  in  the 
trenches  in  which  it  is  stored  for  winter.  In  handling 
and  earthing  up,  the  main  point  is  to  keep  the  stalks  of 
the  plant  so  close  together  that  no  soil  can  get  between 
them.  After  this  "handling"  is  done,  the  plants  are 
left  to  grow  two  weeks,  and  are  then  further  earthed  up. 
The  bank  must  be  made  broad  at  the  base,  and  the  side 
sloped  up,  so  that  they  will  not  cave  or  slide.  As  the 
plants  grow  higher  the  earth  is  dug  from  the  center  of 
the  row  with  a  spade,  and  banked  up  against  the  celery. 
The  celery  will  be  blanched  in  about  four  weeks.  Cel- 
ery can  be  successfully  blanched  in  the  field,  between 
boards,  by  adopting  the  following  process  :  Tie  up  the 
plants  with  yarn  or  other  convenient  material,  and,  tak- 
ing common  boards  twelve  inches  wide,  place  them  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  row  three  inches  apart,  fasten  them 
there  with  stout  pegs  driven  on  the  outside  of  each 
board.  The  celery  leaves  projecting  out  of  the  top  will 
exclude  the  light,  and  the  stems  become  white  and 
remain  free  from  rust.  The  plan  is  the  same  as  is  pur- 
sued in  blanching  endive,  sea  kale  and  asparagus.  Un- 
der this  system  the  plants  should  stand  close  in  the 
rows,  say  six  inches,  and  the  rows  may  be  closer  than 
where  banking  is  practiced,  say  three  feet.  Celery 
should  not  be  banked  up  while  the  stalks  are  wet  with 
rain  or  dew.  A  large  grower,  well  known  to  the  writer, 


120  MAEKET 


cultivates  flat  into  August,  then  banks  at  the  rate  of  fiye 
thousand  per  man  per  single  day's  work,  and  once  again 
early  in  September,  then  covers  it  from  frost  in  the  row 
or  removes  it  to  the  trench  or  other  storing  place. 
This  work  must  be  well  done,  even  if  it  is  rapidly  done, 
but  practice  makes  light  fingers.  Boys  must  be  watched, 
or,  better,  not  employed  ;  as  the  strength  of  a  mature 
hand  is  needed.  After  the  first  banking,  and  new  stalks 
start,  one  will  soon  learn  to  have  a  few  rows  ripe  and 
ready  for  market  or  home  use  every  day,  until  cold 
weather  requires  the  removal  of  the  plants  to  the  stor- 
ing place. 

Storing  trenches  should  only  be  dug  in  dry  soil, 
well  underdrained,  or  where  water  does  not  stand. 
These  trenches  are  made  the  width  of  a  spade,  and  as 
deep  as  the  celery  is  high.  Just  before  frost  the  celery 
is  dug  up  and  packed  in  an  upright  position  in  these 
trenches.  No  covering  is  put  on  until  cold  weather  sets 
in.  It  will  stand  light  frosts.  Finally  the  trench  is 
covered  with  hay,  or  other  litter,  the  earth  rounded  up 
along  and  over  the  trench.  In  the  latitude  of  Philadel- 
phia celery  is  stored  away  in  this  way,  beginning  the 
last  of  October,  and  finishing  by  November  15th.  The 
first  in,  is  first  blanched  ;  the  last  keeps  till  February 
and  March.  A  covering  of  boards  over  the  litter  will 
keep  the  rain  off,  and  is  to  be  recommended.  The  win- 
ter storage  of  celery  is  a  matter  of  the  deepest  import- 
ance, as,  if  not  properly  done,  all  previous  efforts  go  for 
nothing.  The  novice  will  do  best  by  trying  several 
systems,  and  subsequently  adhering  to  that  which  proves 
the  best  in  his  climate. 

Celery  can  be  stored  by  burying  in  the  row  where  it 
grew,  by  removing  to  trenches,  to  boxes  in  the  cellar,  or 
to  a  temporary  pit  specially  prepared  for  large  quanti- 
ties. The  first  method  is  often  practiced  with  double 
rows  in  muck  ground,  and  during  warm  winters  has 


CELERY.  121 

proved  quite  successful.  The  object  of  any  method  is 
to  protect  from  frost,  and  maintain  plant  life,  for  the 
celery  is  most  healthy  when  it  continues  to  grow,  or,  at 
least,  draw  moisture  through  its  roots,  till  it  is  mar- 
keted. It  is  an  easy  matter  to  secure  growth  in  good 
ground,  with  sunshine  and  wind  and  rain,  but  with  the 
coming  of  frost  the  celery  must  be  removed  to  close 
quarters.  If  buried  in  the  row  it  must  be  where  water 
will  not  collect,  but  where  good  drainage  can  be  relied 
upon.  With  the  stalks  banked  their  entire  length,  a 
few  leaves  are  left  as  long  as  possible  exposed,  but  finally 
these  are  covered  with  straw  or  manure,  at  first  lightly, 
then  heavily,  and  then  again  very  heavily,  so  as  to  shut 
out  hard  frost  for  a  long  period.  This  can  be  managed  so 
as  to  allow  the  celery  to  be  taken  out  for  use  from  the 
under  side  in  very  cold  weather.  This  method  has  risks  ; 
one  must  assume  them  and  trust  each  night's  cold  will 
not  freeze  the  celery,  or  a  day's  warmth  smother  it  under 
too  much  covering.  Another  way  is  to  dig  a  trench  one 
or  two  feet  wide,  as  deep  as  the  stalks,  and  on  loose 
earth,  scattered  in  the  bottom,  place  the  celery  as  close 
together  as  possible,  wetting  the  earth  about  the  roots. 
Begin  to  cover  with  manure,  and  increase  with  frost. 
But  now  the  celery  must  be  watched,  every  week  it  must 
be  examined.  If,  after  a  time,  leaves  lose  their  green 
color,  wet  the  roots  without  wetting  the  stalks,  and 
watch  for  rust,  dark  brown  spots,  a  fungus  growth, 
quick  to  spread  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  plants. 
Such  stalks  must  be  immediately  removed  and  sent  to 
market;  if  allowed  to  remain  they  will  entirely  decay 
and  breed  disease  among  all  the  rest.  Absolute  protec- 
tion is  claimed  against  fungus  growth  by  spraying  the 
celery  plants  with  Bordeaux  mixture  every  second  day 
during  four  weeks  preceding  their  storage.  A  method 
of  winter  storage,  by  which  the  risks  are  largely  removed, 
is  to  provide  boxes  twelve  inches  deep,  fill  them  half  full 


122  MAKKET   GARDENING. 

of  good  earth,  in  which  set  out  the  celery,  closely 
packed,  the  first  week  of  October,  and  carry  the  boxes 
into  the  cellar.  If  there  be  room  enough  the  cellar  can 
contain  many  boxes  and  many  thousand  plants.  Have 
the  earth  moist  in  the  boxes,  and  watch  for  the  need  of 
water ;  get  water  in  at  the  roots,  a  little  only  at  a  time, 
to  promote  growth.  The  stalks  will  stand  high  up 
about  the  sides  of  the  boxes,  and  as  the  nights  become 
cooler  the  cellar  doors  must  be  closed.  Carefully  pull 
out  any  dead  or  dying  stalks,  and  watch  for  rust,  also. 
In  this  manner  celery  is  easily  kept,  and  the  method 
is  advised  for  the  small  operator. 

The  last  method  is  that  of  a  temporary  outdoor 
cellar,  built  for  the  purpose,  in  or  near  the  celery 
ground.  A  sort  of  pit  or  dug-out  is  made  on  dry  upland, 
twenty-four  feet  wide,  and  as  long  as  needed,  each  foot 
in  length  holding  one  thousand  celery  plants.  Dig  the 
sides  straight  down,  and  cover  with  sixteen-foot  boards 
for  a  roof,  meeting  over  the  center.  Provide  fine  earth 
in  the  bottom  and  set  -out  the  celery  just  as  described 
for  cellar  boxes,  then  water  the  roots  as  may  be  needed. 
The  structure  must  be  made  frost  proof.  Examine  the 
whole  stock  every  week.  A  storm  door  is  required  at 
the  entrance,  also  a  window  with  shutter  to  admit  light. 

If  the  distance  is  short  and  the  celery  carrie.d  in 
wagons,  it  can  be  placed  in  barrels,  the  bunches  resting 
on  the  roots,  the  tops  upright.  Some  precaution  against 
frost  is  necessary.  Chests  are  made  for  packing  pur- 
poses, and  lined  with  straw.  The  bunches  are  carefully 
protected  from  bruising  by  skillful  packing. 

As  celery  is  generally  a  second  crop,  the  cost  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is  planted  and  cultivated  at 
a  season  when  other  things  are  not  demanding  much 
attention,  and  the  crop  fills  a  gap  in  the  garden,  when, 
if  not  grown,  the  land  might  be  unprofitable.  But  the 
preparation  for  market,  if  time  is  considered,  costs 


CELEKY.  123 

nearly  as  much  as  the  growing.  Enough  plants  may  be 
sold,  in  planting  season,  to  pay  for  seed  and  summer 
cultivation — that  is,  in  some  gardens.  These  things 
taken  into  consideration,  the  cost  is  probably  two  hun- 
dred dollars  per  acre.  The  cost  of  the  crop  varies, 
rarely  being  the  same  two  successive  years.  Manure  is 
comparatively  cheap,  but  labor  is  dear. 

Celery  has  been  grown  and  marketed  for  one  dollar 
and.  fifty  cents  per  thousand  plants,  but  the  explanation 
must  be  added  that  only  in  rare  instances  of  exceeding 
good  fortune  has  this  been  done — where,  from  the  seed 
to  the  selling,  everything  was  remarkably  cheap,  labor 
at  twenty-five  to  forty  cents  per  day,  by  German  women, 
who  had  become,  by  long  practice,  expert  at  the  work. 
The  safer  figure  to  give  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars 
per  thousand,  especially  for  amateur  efforts,  and,  while 
writing,  distant  growers  are  offering  celery  ready  for 
shipment  at  the  station  for  sixteen  dollars  per  thousand. 
The  reader  can  estimate  for  himself  how  small  the  mar- 
gin of  profit  may  be.  For  the  rare  instance :  It  is 
claimed,  by  one  man,  that  he  prepared,  in  one  day, 
three  muck  beds,  and  sowed  three  dollars'  worth  of  seed ; 
it  gave  one  hundred  thousand  plants,  from  which  sev- 
enty-five thousand  were  selected.  With  a  boy  to  drop 
the  plants  in  the  row,  and  a  woman  to  set  them  out, 
fifteen  such  couples,  with  one  man  to  dig  plants  from 
the  bed,  will  set  out  seventy-five  thousand  in  muck  in 
one  day.  This,  it  is  claimed,  has  been  done  repeatedly. 
Banking  is  done  at  the  same  rate  ;  so  that  after  the  sec- 
ond banking  the  celery  has  cost  less  than  seventy  cents 
per  thousand.  A  grower,  who  had  sold  seventy-five 
thousand,  stated  he  did  not  think  the  crop  had  cost  him 
one  hundred  dollars  on  his  muck  ground. 

On  sandy  loam  the  cost  is  much  greater,  and  the 
yield  less  bulky.  Heavy  manuring,  frequent  cultivation 
and  much  less  rapid  handling  of  plants  in  such  ground, 


124:  MARKET    GARDENING. 

change  the  figures.  From  some  grounds  the  writer  has 
seen  celery  plants,  each  having  fifty  stalks  by  actual 
count.  Such  vigorous  growth  takes  the  lead  in  the 
market  and  fills  the  purse,  but  the  average  celery  plant 
only  numbers  five  to  eight  stalks.  When  one  has,  by 
long  experience,  and  the  use  of  proper  seed,  learned  to 
grow  such  thrifty  plants,  their  relative  cost  will  be 
small.  To  prepare  a  muck  field  from  the  rough  swamp 
is  sometimes  very  costly,  but  on  such  ground  celery 
grows  luxuriantly  with  a  minimum  of  cultivation,  and 
the  markets  of  the  country  are  most  largely  supplied 
from  such  sources.  Plants  have  been  grown  for  three 
cents  per  thousand,  and  have  been  set  out  for  fifteen 
cents,  but  the  average  price,  if  one  buys  plants,  is  two 
to  three  dollars  per  thousand,  and  in  other  than  muck 
ground  the  setting  out  costs  as  much  more.  The  ama- 
teur must  grow  celery  one  year,  at  least,  to  learn  how, 
and  to  find  whether  it  can  be  made  profitable  on  his 
ground  and  in  his  market.  The  work  may  be  done  at 
less  expense  than  the  following  estimate : 

Interest  on  $150  @  10%,  $16.  Manure,  40  loads  @  $2=$80 $95.00 

Plowing,  harrowing  and  marketing,  1  man  and  team  1  day 3.00 

Planting,  1  man  4  days  @  $1.50:=$6;  cultivating,  1  man  and  horse 

3  days  @  2$,  $6 T?7 12.00 

Hoeing  twice,  1  man  3  days  @  $1.50=$4.50;  handling  or  tying,  1 

man  10  days  @  $1.M)=$15 19.50 

Banking,!  man  15  days  @  $1.50=$22.50;  trenching,  $10;  water 

and  watering,  $6 38.50 

13,000  plants  @  $5— $65 ;  preparing  for  market,  $40 105.00 

Total  cost  for  on  e  acre f  273.00 

In  preparing  for  market,  the  outside  green  leaves 
should  be  removed,  leaving  none  but  the  blanched  or 
edible  part,  with  its  green  tops,  roots  nicely  trimmed  off 
and  washed.  Pack  in  neat  round  bunches  of  twelve 
stalks  each,  tied  tightly  at  top  and  bottom ;  or  inquire 
what  is  most  favored  in  each  market,  and  tie  up  in  the 
acceptable  form ;  don't  attempt  to  develop  many  new 
ideas.  For  some  distant  markets  it  will  pay  to  wrap 


CULTTJKE.  125 


each  stalk  separately  in  brown  straw  paper,  and  pack  in 
boxes  with  slatted  top.  Any  rusty  or  decayed  spots  on 
the  celery  can  be  quickly  removed  with  a  sharp,  thin- 
bladed  knife,  which  greatly  improves  its  appearance. 
Prices  range  from  twenty-five  cents  to  two  dollars  per 
dozen,  according  to  size  and  quality.  Good  celery  will 
average  eight  cents  per  stalk,  or,  in  round  numbers, 
one  thousand  dollars  per  acre.  Frequently  the  whole  of 
the  expense  of  manure  can  be  covered  by  raising  a  spring 
crop  on  the  ground,  before  planting  the  celery. 

As  an  example  of  profitable  celery  culture,  it  may 
be  cited  that  on  a  certain  farm  three  hundred  bushels  of 
early  potatoes  were  grown  one  season  on  two  acres  of 
muck  ground,  and  brought  one  dollar  per  bushel  ;  five 
thousand  dozen  celery  were  eet  out  just  before  digging 
the  potatoes,  and  became  well  rooted  in  the  shade  of  the 
potato  vines.  The  celery  sold  was  shipped  in  many 
directions,  and  retailed  at  eight  and  ten  cents  per  bunch. 
The  celery  brought  the  grower  seventeen  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars,  and  the  crop  cost  him  less  than  one  hundred 
dollars  as  it  left  his  hands. 


CHAPTEE  XIX. 

CULTURE. 


A  strong,  deep,  rich,  loamy  soil  is  most  suitable  for 
an  onion  crop,  and  where  very  large  bulbs  are  desired,  it 
is  indispensable.  New  land  is  especially  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  onions.  On  ground  of  this  character  they 
can  be  raised  at  less  than  one-half  the  ordinary  cost, 
little  or  no  manure  being  necessary,  and  it  is  usually 
nearly  free  from  weeds.  Very  dry,  light  or  sandy  soil  is 
unfit  for  this  high-feeding  crop.  The  chief  reason  why 


126  MARKET   GARDENING. 

so  many  are  not  successful  in  raising  onions,  is  because 
they  do  not  attach  enough  importance  to  the  selection 
of  their  seeds ;  they  start  wrong,  by  buying  cheap  seed. 
This  not  only  lessens,  or  loses  the  crop,  but  is  a  source 
of  vexation,  extending  through  the  entire  season. 

No  previous  preparation  is  required  with  virgin  soil. 
If  old  ground  is  to  be  used,  manure  heavily  and  plant  to 
corn ;  cultivate  thoroughly  four  or  five  times ;  do  not 
permit  weeds  to  go  to  seed ;  go  through  the  field  after 
the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn  ;  cut  off  the  weeds,  carry- 
ing away  all  likely  to  ripen  seed,  keeping  a  sharp  look- 
out for  purslane.  Cut  the  corn  earty,  and  plow  deeply 
in  the  fall. 

As  a  manure  for  onions,  well-rotted  stable  dung  is 
the  best.  Artificial  manures  are  uncertain,  especially  in 
dry  seasons.  Stable  manure  reserved  for  an  onion  crop, 
should  be  stacked  up  in  summer,  and  left  until  autumn 
for  processes  of  fermentation  to  fit  the  material  as  a 
plant  food,  and  late  in  the  fall  it  should  be  spread  evenly, 
and  twenty  to  twenty-five  loads  to  the  acre,  and  imme- 
diately plowed  under.  When  possible,  the  ground  should 
always  be  plowed  in  the  autumn,  again  in  the  spring, 
and  harrowed  until  the  ground  is  thoroughly  pulverized. 
No  pains  in  tillage  should  be  spared. 

Various  growers  succeed  best  with  different  varie- 
ties, as  have  proved  best  adapted  to  their  respective  soils 
and  markets.  Among  well  established  varieties  there 
are  the  Yellow  Globe  Danvers,  Extra  Early  Eed,  Large 
Ked  Wethersfield,  Eed  Globe,  White  and  Yellow  Globe, 
Strasburg  and  Silver  Skin. 

Eed  Globe  has  the  color  and  general  quality  of  the 
Large  Eed  Wethersfield,  is  round,  is  as  hardy,  keeps 
well,  and  rivals  it  in  weight  of  crop. 

Extra  Early  Eed  is  a  selection  from  Large  Eed 
Wethersfield,  which,  in  color  and  form,  it  closely  resem- 
bles. It  is  the  earliest  of  all  red  onions,  close  grained, 


ONION   CULTURE.  127 

mild,  a  good  keeper,  and  two  or  three  weeks  earlier 
than  the  Large  Red.  It  is  liable  to  degenerate,  or  revert 
to  the  Wethersfield,  unless  very  careful  selections  of 
bulbs  are  made  for  seed,  and  the  experienced  grower  will 
only  buy  this  from  experienced  and  trusted  dealers. 

Large  Red  Wethersfield  is  a  broad,  flat  onion,  bulbs 
often  growing  to  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  two  and 
a  half  in  depth,  skin  purplish-red,  flesh  purplish-white, 
moderately  fine-grained  and  of  strong  flavor.  There 
are  several  types  of  Wethersfield,  some  early,  some 
medium,  others  late  ;  the  early  form  is  best. 

Yellow  Globe  Danvers,  of  the  pure  type,  is  inclined 
to  be  half  globular  in  form,  that  is  to  say,  flat  on  the 
bottom  and  round  on  top ;  it  is  above  medium  size,  skin 
yellowish-brown,  growing  dark  by  age,  flesh  white, 
sugary,  comparatively  mild  and  well  flavored,  and  ex- 
ceedingly productive.  There  is  a  form  of  so  called  Yel- 
low Danvers  known  as  Flat  Danvers,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the*  Strasburg. 

Silver  Skin  produces  bulbs  medium  in  size,  flattened, 
average  specimens  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  one  and 
a  half  to  two  inches  thick;  neck  small,  skin  silvery 
white,  after  removal  of  outer  envelope,  top  of  bulb  often 
veined  and  clouded  with  green,  while  that  portion  below 
ground  is  usually  clear  white.  Flesh  white,  fine  grained, 
and  quite  mild  in  flavor. 

Yellow  Strasburg  is  an  old  variety,  still  of  high 
repute  on  account  of  its  long  keeping  qualities  and  mild 
flavor.  The  bulb  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  the 
Silver  Skin,  the  flesh  being  equally  white.  It  is  the 
variety  from  which  the  best  sets  are  grown. 

Among  other  varieties  not  so  well  known  are  the 
Extra  Early  Yellow,  the  earliest  of  that  color ;  Extra 
Early  Pearl,  the  earliest  white ;  Autumn  White  Wax,  a 
choice  early  waxy  variety,  Bermuda  White  and  Red. 

Small  patches  of  onion  may  be  sown  by  hand,  or 
through  a  long  tin  tube.  Large  breadths  should  be 


128  MARKET   GARDENING. 

sown  by  a  garden  seed  drill.  Such  can  be  purchased 
according  to  design  at  from  five  to  seven  dollars  cash. 
There  is  no  perfect  seed-drill ;  all  have  faults.  Possibly 
the  Keeler  is  now  the  best  form.  It  is  light  and  easy  to 
run,  and  distributes  the  seed  evenly.  The  seed  is  best 
drilled  in  straight  rows,  one  foot  apart,  six  pounds  of 
seed  being  sown  to  the  acre.  One  acre  can  be  sown  in 
four  hours  with  the  Keeler  drill,  machine,  weather,  land 
and  man  in  perfect  working  order.  The  seed  should 
not  be  buried  over  one-third  of  an  inch  deep,  and  tightly 
rolled  in  by  the  roller  attached  to  the  drill.  After  sow- 
ing, a  wooden  garden  roller  should  be  used  to  level  and 
solidify  the  land. 

The  best  time  to  drill  onion  seed  is  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  the  soil  dry  enough  for 
preparation ;  then  set  all  hands  to  work  and  rush  it 
through.  No  matter  if  light  spring  frosts  are  not  all 
passed,  don't  be  afraid  of  after-freezing,  it  won't  hurt 
the  crops.  The  reason  for  early  planting  is*  obvious, 
when  it  is  known  tluit  onion  seed  will  germinate  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  most  other  seeds,  while  weed 
seeds  require  a  much  higher  temperature  ;  consequently, 
the  onions  will  make  their  appearance  ten  days  before 
the  weeds,  enabling  the  gardener  to  commence  early  cul- 
tivation, and  thus  keep  weeds  in  check.  Fall  plowing 
facilitates  early  spring  preparation,  making  early  drill- 
ing practicable. 

Salt  is  sometimes  broadcasted  upon  an  onion  field  to 
destroy  the  onion  maggot,  and  its  application  is  believed 
to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  crop.  It  seems  to  keep 
the  soil  from  drying  out.  Near  the  sea  coast  seaweed 
or  sea  grass  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  onions,  maggots 
or  weeds  seldom  injuring  a  salted  crop.  Two  bushels 
of  salt  to  the  acre  is  sufficient,  more  is  dangerous. 

In  the  cultivation  four  hoeings  and  three  weedings 
are  usually  necessary ;  the  last  weeding  must  be  done 


ONION   CULTURE.  129 

before  the  bottoms  begin  to  form,  or  before  the  middle 
of  July,  as  they  often  " blast"  if  worked  when  forming 
bulbs,  many  of  them  failing  to  make  bulbs,  and  becom- 
ing " scullions.''*  The  season  for  hoeing  and  weeding 
covers  about  two  months.  After  July  20th  the  crop 
should  be  safely  under  way.  One  man  can  tend  two 
acres,  and  have  time  to  spare,  but  in  the  weeding  time 
he  will  need  a  helper,  as  the  whole  field,  be  it  large  or 
small,  must  be  cleaned  within  a  few  days,  as,  when 
weeding  is  necessary,  it  is  always  pressing.  Hand  hoe- 
ing and  hand  weeding  is  more  efficient  than  work  done 
with  scuffle  hoes,  which  do  not  do  the  work  thoroughly. 
Flat  hoeing  is  all  that  is  necessary,  no  effort  being  made 
either  to  draw  the  dirt  up  to  the  onions,  or  away.  Purs- 
lane is  the  most  troublesome  weed,  usually  appearing  in 
abundance  at  the  last  weeding.  It  must  be  carried  off 
in  baskets  or  sacks-.  The  time  occupied  in  cultivating  a 
crop  of  onions  covers  from  two  to  three  months. 

In  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  harvesting  is  com- 
menced about  August  1st,  or  whenever  two-thirds  of  the 
tops  fall  and  begin  to  turn  yellow ;  pull  them  by  hand, 
when  seasoned  so  that  the  juice  cannot  be  squeezed  from 
the  neck,  rake  in  heaps,  and  pull  or  cut  the  tops  off. 
Place  in  heaps  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  each,  on 
the  field ;  cover  with  straw  or  tarpaulin,  so  as  to  keep 
dry.  An  itemized  estimate  of  the  cost  of  growing  an 
acre  of  onions  may  be  drawn  as  follows  : 

Use  of  land  for  twelve  months $20.00 

Fertilizers  applied 30.00 

Fall  plowing  under 2.00 

Spring  preparation  of  ground 6.00 

Cost  of  seed,  six  pounds  @  $2 12.00 

Drilling  in 2.00 

Top-dressing  1  barrel  salt  1.00 

Cost  of  cultivation  until  pulled 50.00 

Topping  420  bushels  onions 12.00 

Hauling  the  same  four  miles 12.00 


9 


Total  cost $147.00 

Cost  per  bushel $     .35 


130  MARKET   GARDENING. 

Some  onion  growers  have  found  it  profitable  to  drill 
winter  rye  in  September,  and  in  March  plow  it  down  as 
a  green  manure,  the  mass  of  rye  tops  and  root  fibers  fur- 
nishing a  vast  amount  of  plant  food.  Of  course,  after 
such  a  mat  of  green  herbage  is  plowed  under,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  roll  it  down  hard,  otherwise  the  cavi- 
ties would  cause  a  drying  out  of  the  soil,  and  the  onion 
plants  would  suffer  more  than  they  gained. 

There  are  several  insects  that  do  damage  to  the 
onion  crop;  one,  a  large  white  grub,  eating  the  leaf 
stalks  off  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  Manure  is 
the  best  remedy,  stimulating  the  plants  to  resist  attacks. 
Another  is  a  louse.  The  first  indication  of  the  presence 
of  the  louse  is  a  moldy  appearance  of  the  stalks,  and, 
upon  examination  with  a  glass,  myriads  of  microscopic 
insects  are  revealed;  these  cause  a  stunted  growth,  if 
not  resulting  in  death.  The  only  remedy  is  to  change 
the  location  of  the  next  year's  crop.  Another  destruc- 
tive insect  is  a  maggot,  or  small  white  worm,  half 
to  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  which  bores  to  the  heart  of 
the  bulb  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  The  writer 
has  seen  twenty  in  a  single  bulb.  They  are  very  trouble- 
some in  some  years,  and  salt  is  believed  to  be  the  best 
remedy. 

A  fungus  growth  known  as  smut  works  great  injury 
to  the  onion,  and  it  sometimes  appears  on  the  plants 
even  when  but  one  or  two  inches  high,  and  covers  the 
green  stems  with  a  red  and  black  substance,  coming  off 
upon  workmen's  shoes,  implements  and  tools.  The 
spores  may  thus  be  carried  from  one  part  of  the  field  to 
another,  or  from  one  patch  to  another,  and  spread  the 
disease,  as  every  spore  is  capable  of  multiplying  itself  a 
thousand  times.  The  only  remedy  for  this  disease  is  to 
change  the  location  of  the  crop.  All  tools  which  have 
been  used  on  a  smutty  onion  field  must  be  carefully 
washed  and  soaked  in  hot  water,  or  they  may  re-establish 
the  disease  the  succeeding  year. 


ONION   CULTURE. 


131 


DURATION  OF  CULTURE  ON  THE  SAME  LAND. 

Onions  have  been  successfully  raised  on  the  same 
ground  for  twenty-five  years  in  succession,  but,  of  late 
years,  the  smut  appears  in  about  ten  or  twelve,  and  a 
new  tract  has  to  be  taken  more  frequently  than  formerly. 

The  conditions  of  weather  have  much  influence 
upon  the  onion  crop.  Extremely  dry  weather  hinders  the 
growth  and  makes  the  bulbs  small ;  wet  weather  makes 
top,  and  delays  ripening.  The  yield  per  acre  varies  with 
the  cultivation,  soil,  and  other  circumstances,  from  200 
to  600  or  1,000  bushels;  350  bushels  is  considered  an 
average  yield.  To  illustrate  the  crop  returns  on  large 
fields  it  maybe  interesting  to  note  the  results  of  seven 
years  of  culture  by  an  expert  grower  : 


Acres. 

Bushels. 

Amount  of  Sales. 

First  year  
Second  year  

10 
10 

3,081 
3,124 

$1,059.00 
981.00 

Third  year  
Fourth  year  

10 
10 

3.159 
3,660 

894.00 
639.00 

Fifth  year.  . 

11 

2,890 

1,656.00 

Sixth  year  
Seventh  year  

11 
13 

3,053 
2,340 

2,344.00 
2,463.00 

Total, 

75 

21,307 

$10,036.00 

The  last  year  this  grower  cultivated  thirteen  acres ; 
the  aggregate  yield  was  2,340  bushels ;  the  aggregate 
receipts  were  $2,463.  The  expenses  were  :  Land,  $130 ; 
gathering  and  marketing,  $260 ;  seed,  $215 ;  weeding^ 
$275  ;  manure,  $50  ;  preparing  land  and  planting,  $100 ; 
total  expense,  $1,030;  net  profits,  $1,433.  These  fig- 
ures also  show  an  average  of  284  bushels  per  acre,  at  an 
average  price  of  forty-seven  cents  per  bushel.  Of  course, 
there  are  records  that  far  exceed  this ;  for  instance,  last 
year,  one  and  one-half  acres,  in  one  case,  yielded  600 
bushels,  and  brought  $780,  which  must  have  given  over 
$400  per  acre  net  profit.  The  records  above  given  show 
the  result  of  a  series  of  years  where  onions  have  been 
made  a  specialty.  The  example  being  taken  of  a  man 
who  began  in  poverty  twenty-four  years  ago,  to-day 


132  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

worth  twenty-thousand  dollars ;  but  right  here  the 
reader  must  remember  that  at  least  sixty  per  cent,  of  his 
expenses  came  back  in  the  shape  of  the  earnings  of  him- 
self and  family. 

STOKING  AND  KEEPING  ONIONS, 

Half  the  secret  of  keeping  onions  well,  is  in  housing 
them  in  a  perfectly  dry,  sound  condition.  If  they  are 
to  be  disposed  of  before  cold  weather,  they  can  be  kept 
in  any  dry  place  where  they  can  have  plenty  of  air,  the 
best  place  being  on  a  loose  floor,  where  the  air  can  pass 
up  through  them. 

Onions,  to  be  preserved  through  winter,  should  be 
kept  at  a  low  temperature ;  if  kept  from  actual  freezing 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  temperature  being  too  low ;  they 
should  be  kept  dry,  but  if,  by  any  chance,  they  get 
frozen,  they  should  not  be  handled,  merely  covered  and 
kept  in  the  dark  till  the  frost  gradually  leaves  them. 
It  is  not  the  freezing  which  does  the  mischief,  but  mov- 
ing them  when  frozen,  and  repeated  thawing  and  with- 
drawing of  frost.  Wherever  the  essential  conditions 
prevail  of  uniform  low  dry  temperature,  absence  of  light, 
and  not  too  severe  frost,  they  may  be  safely  stored  for 
winter.  Above  all  things,  moisture  and  heating  in  balk 
should  be  guarded  against.  If  these  conditions  are  to 
be  obtained  in  a  cellar  or  a  room  above  ground  it  may  be 
used  for  winter  storing.  To  avoid  gathering  moisture 
and  heating,  the  bulbs  should  not  be  over  two  feet  deep, 
better  less.  If  too  warm  they  grow  and  rot. 

If  they  are  to  be  kept  through  the  winter,  store 
them  in  a  building  with  tight  floors,  under  which  the 
frost  cannot  get.  On  such  a  floor  place  scantling,  upon 
which  lay  narrow  boards,  half  an  inch  apart.  Upon 
this  drying  floor  build  up  a  false  partition  one  foot  within 
the  outside  walls.  Arranged  in  this  way,  they  have  a 
free  circulation  of  air  all  around  and  under  them. 


ONION   CULTUBE.  133 

When  the  temperature  sinks  to  20°  it  is  well  to  fill  in 
the  space  with  straw,  to  stop  the  circulation  of  the  cold 
air.  They  can  be  put  in  bins  of  this  structure,  from 
two  to  three  feet  deep.  It  is  well  to  cover  them  over 
with  hay  or  cornstalks  sufficiently  to  protect  them.  If 
they  should  freeze,  allow  them  to  remain  covered  until 
completely  thawed.  Always  handle  them  as  carefully 
as  apples,  as  even  slight  bruises  cause  them  to  mold 
or  rot. 

If  there  be  no  convenient  structure  suitable  for  the 
winter  storage  of  onions  in  large  quantity,  one  may  be 
erected  somewhat  after  the  following  plan  :  If  to  store 
twenty-five  hundred  bushels,  erect  a  building  twenty  by 
thirty  feet,  with  sixteen  foot  posts.  It  should  stand  the 
longest  way  north  and  south,  with  doors  twelve  feet 
wide,  and  high  at  each  end.  It  should  stand  one  foot 
from  the  ground,  to  admit  of  free  circulation  beneath, 
and  be  sided  with  matched  boards  lined  with  tarred 
paper.  The  floor  should  be  of  two-inch  plank  laid  loose, 
and  well  supported.  On  this  floor  place  blocks  five  feet 
apart,  about  five  inches  square,  and  twenty  inches  high ; 
cover  the  floor  with  onions  to  the  top  of  the  blocks ; 
place  on  these  blocks  timbers  as  large  as  three  by  four, 
and  on  these  narrow  boards  for  flooring  one  inch  apart. 
On  this  floor  place  blocks,  the  same  as  before ;  fill  in 
with  onions,  and  so  on  as  high  as  convenient.  The 
blocks  should  be  placed  exactly  over  each  other,  as  there 
will  be  a  great  weight  on  the  lower  boards.  During  the 
fall,  when  the  weather  is  dry,  open  the  doors  at  each 
end ;  this  will  give  the  air  free  circulation  through  them. 
They  will  bear  the  temperature  down  to  twenty-five 
without  injury.  On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  bank 
up  the  sides  of  the  building  to  keep  the  frost  from  get- 
ting under.  On  warm,  clear  clays,  open  the  south  doors. 
When  it  is  desired  to  take  out  the  onions  commence  at 
the  south  doors,  by  taking  out  the  floor  boards,  and  let 


134  MARKET   GARDENING. 

them  roll  down  to  the  first  floor,  for  topping.  If  they 
get  frozen  they  will  generally  come  out  sound,  if  left 
undisturbed  till  the  frost  is  out. 

The  vitality  of  onion  seed  should  always  be  carefully 
and  thoroughly  tested  before  sowing.  The  best  wa}/  is 
to  count  out  two  or  three  samples  of  one  hundred  seeds 
each,  and  each  separate  sample  place  between  two  layers 
of  cotton  batting>  resting  on  saucers,  each  containing  a 
quarter  inch  of  water.  Put  in  a  warm  place,  and  keep 
water  at  same  level.  The  seeds  will  sprout  in  a  few  days. 
Find  the  general  average  of  percentage  that  will  develop 
shoots  of  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  plant  accordingly, 
assuming  eighty-five  per  cent,  a  standard  of  highest  vital- 
ity. If,  with  seed  of  eighty-five  per  cent,  vitality,  six 
pounds  is  proper  to  sow  an  acre,  then  with  seed  of  only 
sixty  per  cent,  vitality,  nine  pounds  should  be  sown. 

Be  not  deluded  into  the  purchase  of  cheap  seed, 
such  is  always  questionable,  always  suspicious.  In  the 
first  place,  it  may  not  grow  at  all,  or  not  over  fifty  or 
sixty  per  cent.  ;  and,  secondly,  and  more  damaging  to 
the  planter,  it  may  be  from  common  mixed  stock,  or 
prove  late  and  staggy.  This  the  grower  only  discovers 
after  a  loss  of  a  season  and  expensive  labor. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
MUSHROOM  CULTURE. 

Before  considering  the  subject  of  mushroom  culture, 
it  may  be  well  to  make  some  reference  to  this  edible 
fungus,  a  genus  much  larger  and  more  important  as  a 
food  than  generally  supposed. 

Dr.  Badham,  an  English  authority  upon  fungi, 
states  that  hundreds  of  tons  of  rich,  wholesome  food 
go  to  waste  daily  in  England,  because  of  ignorance 
and  superstition. 

In  England  there  are,  at  least,  forty  species  of  edi- 
ble mushrooms,  and  in  the  United  States  many  hun- 
dreds. In  the  State  of  North  Carolina  alone,  there  are 
one  hundred  and  twenty  species  of  fungi,  many  of  them 
obtainable  over  a  season  of  nine  months.  Mountain  and 
plain,  valley  and  forest,  are  swarming  with  a  profusion  of 
nutritious  food  going  to  decay  because  of  the  ignorance 
of  the  public. 

The  soil  for  earth  fungi  and  the  wood  for  forest 
fungi,  however,  has  much  to  do  with  flavor,  as  occasion- 
ally a  most  excellent  variety  proves  to  be  unpalatable, 
and  even  offensive.  Of  forest  or  tree  fungi,  those  grow- 
ing on  the  mulberry  and  on  the  hickory  are  generally  of 
the  best  flavor.  Dr.  Curtis,  of  South  Carolina,  is,  per- 
haps, among  Americans,  the  most  venturesome  in  tast- 
ing wild  fungi — beginning  with  a  single  mouthful,  the 
next  day  two  or  three  mouthfuls,  and  the  next  a  full 
meal.  It  takes  a  braver  man  than  he  who  first  swallowed 
an  oyster  to  make  experiments  like  this  for  the  benefit 
of  botanical  science.  Though  sick  stomachs  and  some 

135 


136  MARKET   GARDENING. 

inflammation  have  frequently  resulted  from  eating  poison- 
ous or  unwholesome  mushrooms,  it  is  rare  to  hear  of  an 
authenticated  record  of  death  from  such  causes.  Mush- 
rooms, which  are  safe  with  some  persons,  often  disagree 
with  others;  indeed,  it  seems  the  stomach  may  be  edu- 
cated to  bear  most  noxious  species,  as  there  are  records 
of  highly  poisonous  varieties  being  eaten  with  impunity 
by  mushroom  tasters. 

As  before  remarked,  soil  and  circumstances  cause 
fungi  to  assume  different  properties,  and  the  novice, 
when  uncertain  as  to  the  merit  of  an  unrecognized 
species,  will  find  it  a  good  plan  to  try  the  new  sort 
with  great  caution.  In  no  garden  process  is  there 
such  contradictory  practice  as  in  mushroom  culture, 
and,  while  generally  considered  a  subject  requiring  much 
experience  and  skill,  the  diversified  system  of  cultivation 
would  seem  to  point  to  simplicity  in  the  requirements. 
For  instance,  one  successful  grower  will  gather  dry  drop- 
pings from  horses,  and  still  further  dry  them,  by  spread- 
ing and  frequent  turning  under  cover.  Another,  equally 
successful  as  a  grower,  dispenses  with  all  this  trouble, 
taking  stable  dung  fresh  from  the  stalls,  and  mixing  in 
a  fourth  part  of  good  friable  loam,  piling  it  up  for  a 
week,  then  turning  it  over,  and,  if  fermenting  too  strongly, 
adding  more  loam.  This  mixture,  made  into  beds,  is 
immediately  charged  with  spawn. 

A  third  grower  takes  his  manure  from  an  ordinary 
barnyard  pile,  and  mixes  in  a  fourth  part  of  loam. 
Other  growers  will  not  use  manure  which  has  been  fer- 
menting, claiming  that  it  will  not  produce  mushrooms 
or  a  continuous  crop.  Another  system  is  to  take  any 
good  stable  manure,  and,  removing  sticks,  stones,  very 
long  straw,  or  other  coarse  material,  thoroughly  mix 
and  pile  it  in  beds  two  feet  high,  thoroughly  wet  with 
water  and  stamp  down.  After  a  week  or  ten  days,  by 
which  time  it  is  quite  hot,  the  pile  is  re-worked  and  left 


MUSHKOOM   CULTURE.  137 

for  another  ten  days,  then  it  is  in  condition  to  be  made 
into  beds  of  the  proper  form  and  seeded.  Sometimes 
four  to  six  weeks  are  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the 
manure,  a  leading  object  with  most  cultivators  being  to 
have  it  half  decomposed,  completely  mixed,  but  not  wet. 

Mushroom  Beds. — Possibly  the  best  system  for 
the  amateur  to  pursue  is  to  prepare  his  manure  pile 
under  cover,  as  in  a  shed  or  cellar,  making  his  pile  one- 
fourth  loam  and  three-fourths  of  the  best  stable  manure 
he  can  get,  horse  dung  predominating,  which  should  be 
piled  first,  to  allow  it  to  lose  its  fiercest  heat,  the  loam 
helping  to  solidify  the  mixture.  At  spawning  time  the 
heat  in  the  beds  should  range  from  sixty  to  eighty 
degrees,  never  above  eighty-five.  The  heat  of  a  bed 
may  be  reduced  by  opening  holes  with  a  crowbar,  forc- 
ing it  down  to  the  very  bottom.  Of  course  the  heat  can 
be  taken  with  a  thermometer. 

Spawn,  as  sold,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  seed  used 
by  mushroom  growers,  though  it  is  a  compounded  article. 
That  part  of  the  mushroom  appearing  above  ground,  the 
part  eaten  and  best  known  to  the  public,  is  what  may  be 
termed  the  flower  and  flower  stem,  the  spores,  or  true 
seed,  being  produced  upon  the  gills  of  the  flower,  which, 
under  natural  conditions,  falling  to  the  ground,  germin- 
ate, and  produce  a  fine  underground  mat  of  filaments. 
This  underground  growth  being  the  true  and  perfect 
plant,  the  edible  portion,  as  previously  remarked,  being 
the  flower,  or  seed-bearing  stem.  It  is  not  necessary 
here  to  describe  how  the  spawn  is  made  commercially, 
except  to  say  that  the  English  spawn  comes  in  the  form 
of  light,  dry,  brittle  bricks,  while  the  French  comes  in 
the  form  of  light  flakes,  resembling  half-dried  stable 
manure. 

In  seeding  a  bed  with  English  spawn,  one  bushel 
should  suffice  for  an  area  of  one  hundred  square  feet  of 
surface,  the  bricks  being  broken  into  pieces  the  size 


138  MARKET   GARDENING. 

of  a  walnut,  and  placed  as  hereinafter  directed.  The 
English  spawn  is  the  most  reliable  when  the  work  is 
performed  by  amateurs.  With  the  French  spawn  the 
flakes  about  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar  should  be  inserted 
edgeways  into  the  beds,  the  outer  edge  just  covered  from 
sight.  The  operation  of  spawning  is  a  very  important 
one,  the  aim  being  to  secure  a  uniform  development  of 
spawn  filaments  throughout  the  bed.  When  this  growth 
of  white  fiber  fails  to  appear  after  three  weeks'  time,  the 
bed  should  be  broken  up  and  remade  with  an  addition 
of  one-third  unfermented  dung  to  give  it  heat  again. 
Any  good  loamy  soil  is  suitable  for  covering  the  beds 
after  the  spawn  has  started  to  grow.  In  Paris  the 
beds  are  generally  covered  with  two  inches  of  white  lime- 
stone soil,  not  through  choice,  but  through  convenience, 
and  it  does  as  well  as  anything  else. 

Location  of  Mushroom  Beds. — Mushrooms  may 
be  grown  in  greenhouses  any  month  of  the  year,  and  in 
graperies,  pits,  sheds,  cellars  and  stables  from  April  to 
October.  They  may  also  be  grown  on  shelves  or  on  the 
floor  of  any  of  these  places.  A  novice  in  mushroom  cul- 
ture may,  with  little  trouble  and  comparatively  no  ex- 
pense, try  his  apprentice  hand  at  cultivation  in  half  bar- 
rels kept  in  a  dark  shed  or  cellar,  and  we  would  advise 
the  following  course  for  such  a  trial :  Procure  an  empty 
whiskey  or  vinegar  barrel  with  a  firm  head  and  bottom, 
and  saw  it  in  half.  Pick  out  the  best  quality  of  unfer- 
mented stable  manure  obtainable,  and  thoroughly  mix 
with  one-fourth  part  good  friable  loam,  pile  the  mass 
compactly,  and  tramp  down  and  cover  with  ordinary 
stable  manure  for  a  blanket.  At  the  end  of  a  week 
remove  the  covering  and  turn  the  mixture,  pile  it  up 
again  and  blanket  for  two  or  three  days,  then  half  fill . 
the  tubs  or  barrels  with  the  manure.  Upon  the  top 
surface  lay  pieces  of  spawn  the  size  of  a  walnut  at  inter- 
vals of  three  inches  apart,  and  add  sufficient  of  the 


MUSHROOM   CULTURE.  139 

manure  mixture  to  build  up  a  cone-shaped  elevation  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  In  ten  days  the  spawn  should 
have  sprouted  and  filled  the  whole  mass  of  manure  with 
white  thread-like  filaments.  When  these  are  seen  run- 
ning through  the  entire  pile,  cover  it  with  two  inches  of 
fine  loam,  through  which  the  mushroom  buttons  will 
develop,  and  from  which  the  cultivator  should  be  able 
to  get  a  fair  supply  covering  a  period  of  from  two  to 
four  weeks. 

Mushrooms  in  the  Garden. — Near  London  and 
Paris  considerable  quantities  of  mushrooms  are  grown  in 
the  open  garden.  In  London  ordinary  manure  is  used, 
and  before  it  has  time  to  heat  is  made  into  long  narrow 
beds.  When  the  temperature  reaches  eighty  degrees  it 
is  seeded  with  spawn,  covered  with  two  inches  of  any 
good  soil,  and  blanketed  with  mats  or  tarpaulins.  In 
Paris,  the  outdoor  cultivator  generally  lets  the  manure 
ferment,  and  after  frequent  and  thorough  working, 
makes  'beds  thirty  inches  wide  and  two  feet  in  height, 
which  he  covers  with  mats. 

When  the '  temperature  falls  to  eighty  degrees  he 
spawns  the  bed,  inserting  pieces  of  spawn  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  placing  it  in  three  lines,  one  near  the  bottom 
edge  of  the  bed,  the  second  ten  inches  up  along  the  side, 
and  the  third  ten  inches  above  the  second.  He  next 
covers  with  mats  or  cloth.  After  ten  days,  if  the  spawn 
has  started,  he  covers  with  two  inches  of  soil. 

The  writer  had  the  pleasure,  a  few  years  ago,  of  vis- 
iting the  mushroom  caves  of  Paris,  the  extent  of  such 
cultivation  being  measured  by  the  daily  product  of  four 
tons  of  buttons.  The  work  is  done  in  the  underground 
caverns  and  galleries  of  the  old  limestone  quarries,  from 
which  was  taken  the  stone  to  build  the  city. 

The  manure  is  mixed  upon  the  surface,  lowered 
in  large  buckets,  and  in  the  same  manner  returned  to 
the  surface  for  remaking.  Of  course,  all  the  work  has 


140  MARKET 


to  be  done  by  candle  light,  and,  being  done  in  narrow 
passages,  the  operation  covers  many  miles  ;  the  beds  of 
one  French  cultivator,  if  placed  in  single  line,  would 
reach  about  twenty-six  miles.  The  beds  rest  upon  the 
rock  bottoms  of  the  galleries,  and  are  built  in  the  form 
of  a  ridge,  two  to  three  feet  wide  and  two  feet  high. 
The  limestone  formation  beneath  Paris  seems  to  be  more 
especially  adapted  to  mushroom  culture  than  the  rock 
formation  in  many  other  districts,  coal  and  iron,  in  the 
rock  soil,  for  instance,  preventing  the  best  growth  of 
the  mushroom. 


CHAPTER  XXL 
BOOTS  FOB  STOCK  EEEDIKG. 

This  chapter  is  written  in  the  hope  of  diffusing 
information  inducive  to  greater  attention  to  a  most  val- 
uable adjunct  in  husbandry,  and,  if  more  widely  re- 
garded, calculated  to  increase,  not  only  the  quantity, 
but  the  quality,  of  our  food ;  the  tender,  luscious  mut- 
ton of  the  English,  being  attributable  not  alone  to  their 
cooler  climate,  but  to  the  turnip,  and,  we  may  add,  other 
succulent  roots  on  which  the  sheep  are  fed  and  fattened 
for  the  butcher. 

The  value  of  succulent  food,  in  a  hygienic  or  san- 
itary view,  to  man,  and  also  to  the  animals  which  min- 
ister to  his  wants,  need  not  be  commented  on.  All  who 
have  paid  attention  to  the  subject  agree  in  opinion  as  to 
its  advantage,  indeed,  its  absolute  necessity,  if  the  preser- 
vation of  health  be  properly  studied.  The  long  winters 
of  our  country,  which  arrest  vegetation,  and  oblige  us 
to  provide  green  food  to  be  stored  up  in  anticipation  of 
the  severe  season,  have  necessarily  induced  inquiry  and 


ROOTS   FOR   STOCK   FEEDING.  141 

examination  as  to  the  class  of  vegetables  which  can  be 
produced  in  greatest  abundance,  at  least  cost,  with  least 
exertion  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  and  with  least 
liability  to  failure  of  the  crop  under  unfavorable  atmos- 
pheric conditions,  and  also  as  of  primary  importance, 
with  capability  for  preservation  during  winter  months 
with  slight  danger  of  decay. 

In  Great  Britain  the  culture  of  roots,  round  tur- 
nip, ruta  baga  and  mangold  has  assumed  gigantic  im- 
portance, and  it  was  estimated  by  writers  on  political 
economy,  years  ago,  when  the  turnip  product  was  much 
below  the  present,  that  its  annual  value  was  much  more 
than  the  equivalent  of  the  sum  represented  by  the  interest 
on  the  National  debt,  no  inconsiderable  amount,  as 
everybody  knows.  Until  the  culture  of  roots,  as  they 
are  termed,  was  extended  and  enlarged,  in  England, 
animal  food  was  a  luxury  seldom  within  the  reach  of  the 
operative  classes,  with  whom  vegetables  and  farinaceous 
compounds,  not  always  of  the  best  quality,  were  the 
main  sources  of  sustenance.  Now  English  fattened 
meats,  even  of  American  origin,  are,  in  some  shape, 
within  reach  of  all,  the  factory  operative,  the  mechanic, 
the  tradesman  and  the  landholder  alike  participating; 
and  this  change  has  grown  out  of,  not  so  much  national 
prosperity  or  increased  wages,  though  both  are  indirectly 
affected,  but  the  greater  breadth  of  land  in  root  culture. 

American  corn,  with  us  the  great  meat  producer, 
which  has  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  development 
of  our  country,  enabling  the  hardy  emigrant  from  the 
older  settlements  to  wrest  the  wilderness  from  the  sav- 
age, and  overcome  the  forest,  is  not  grown  in  Great 
Britain  or  any  portion  of  the  north  of  Europe,  there 
being  known  only  as  an  import  from  our  country.  In 
this  particular,  Americans  have  an  advantage  impossible 
to  estimate ;  but,  great  as  it  is,  it  should  not  lessen  our 
exertion  to  produce  succulent  food,  which  augments  the 
value  of  the  farinaceous. 


142  MAKKET  GARDENING. 

The  principal  succulent  and  saccharine  roots,  besides 
the  turnip,  raised  for  cattle  feeding,  are,  it  is  almost 
unnecessary  to  observe,  mainly  comprised  by  the  tribes 
of  beets,  carrots  and  parsnips.  There  are  some  others, 
but  they  are  hardly  of  sufficient  importance  to  occupy 
space  in  limited  pages. 

In  this  country  the  turnip  and  the  ruta  baga,  or 
"  Swede,"  as  it  is  familiarly  called,  is  more  generally  cul- 
tivated for  stock-food  than  any  other  root — not  that  it 
is  the  best,  but  because  it  can  be  so  readily  grown,  and 
at  small  cost.  While  beets,  mangold,  carrots,  kohl  rabbi 
and  parsnip  demand  an  entire  season  to  mature,  the 
turnip  is  of  so  quick  growth  in  our  climate,  that  within 
a  few  weeks  only  after  sowing  abundant  supplies  may 
be  in  hand. 

The  writer  cannot,  however,  but  maintain  that, 
though  at  some  increase  of  labor  in  the  production,  no 
expenditure  on  the  farm  may,  in  the  long  run,  pay  bet- 
ter than  an  annual  crop  of  mangolds  and  carrots,  even  if 
raised  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to  alternate  with  the 
ruta  baga,  and  thus  the  food  be  varied ;  a  change  which 
the  milch  cow,  the  stall-fed  ox  and  the  sheep  crave 
equally  with  man.  At  the  present  time,  when  foreign 
demand  for  American  beef  and  mutton  has  assumed 
gigantic  proportions,  the  subject  of  stock  feeding  pre- 
sents itself  with  increased  force. 

The  subject  is  one  which  concerns  the  Union  ;  our 
prosperity  cannot  advance  faster  than  our  progress  in 
agriculture,  whether  as  planters,  grain  producers,  stock- 
breeders or  dairymen.  When  they  prosper  all  industries 
participate.  The  railroads,  the  mills,  the  forges,  the 
shipping,  find  profitable  employment,  all  are  subordinate 
to  the  farmer's  industry. 

The  Turnip. — That  turnips,  singly  and  alone, 
will  secure  health  and  strength  and  rich  milk,  the  writer 
is  far  from  maintaining ;  but  he  does  contend  that,  in 


BOOTS  FOR   STOCK   FEEDING.  143 

proper  proportion,  in  suitable  condition,  at  proper  times, 
mixed  with  corn  meal,  shorts,  oil  cake,  or  other  rich 
food,  they  will  produce  valuable  results.  To  feed  roots 
of  any  kind  in  imprudently  cold  stables,  or,  as  may 
sometimes  be  seen,  in  the  open  air  in  inclement  weather, 
the  roots,  perhaps,  partially  frozen,  and  expect  favorable 
result?,  argues,  to  say  the  least,  want  of  reflection ;  and 
where  we  find  people  say,  as  we  sometimes  do,  they 
"can  see  no  good  in  roots,"  we  are  sure  to  find,  on 
.inquiry,  that  some  of  the  obviously  rational  and  neces- 
sary rules  of  procedure  in  feeding  have  been  disregarded. 
*The  experience  of  such  people  should  never  be  taken  as 
safe  guides ;  but  rather  let  us  pin  our  faith  on  the  sys- 
tematic and  successful,  who  use  the  right  means  to  the 
right  end.  One  such  practical,  observing,  methodic 
man  in  a  neighborhood,  is  worth  a  dozen  who  make  no 
progress. 

The  writer  should  here  refer  to  the  value  of  turnips 
in  another  view,  as  a  vegetable  manure ;  most  valuable 
will  they  be  found  for  plowing  under  after  the  first 
killing  frost  of  autumn.  Sown  thickly  broadcast  in 
August  or  September  and  allowed  to  cover  the  ground, 
they  gather  from  earth  and  air  a  mass  of  fertilizing 
agents  which  will,  the  succeeding  spring,  astonish  the 
experimenter. 

Nothing  we  know  of  is  so  efficient,  considering  the 
small  cost  of  time  and  money.  Seventy  to  eighty  days 
will  make  the  'crop,  and  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  three 
dollars  per  acre.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  cli- 
matic adaptation  of  the  locality  is  an  important  pre- 
requisite to  success,  both  as  respects  the  productiveness 
of  the  crop,  and  its  cost,  for  it  is  manifest  that,  however 
valuable  and  desirable  may  be  any  object  we  seek,  the 
cost  of  obtaining  it  may  be  disproportionate  to  its  value ; 
such  is  especially  the  case  with  all  products  of  the  soil. 


144:  MARKET  GARDENING. 

TIME  OF  SOWING  TURNIPS. 

In  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  farmers  begin  to 
think  of  sowing  ruta  bagas  about  the  1st  of  July,  and, 
if  everything  is  in  readiness,  complete  their  sowing  by 
the  middle  of  the  month.  Their  process  is  as  follows  : 
Plow  the  land  level,  harrow  crosswise  and  lengthwise, 
getting  it  into  fine  tilth,  then  with  the  plow  draw  shal- 
low furrows  two  and  one-half  feet  apart ;  in  these  furrows 
the  manure  is  spread ;  it  may  consist  of  any  fertilizing 
material  within  reach.  Of  course,  decomposed  matter 
is  the  best,  whether  it  be  vegetable  or  animal ;  and  here, 
we  remark,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  prepare,  in  advance,  a 
compost  which  will  readily  disintegrate  when  spread. 
Where  such  is  not  at  hand,  any  of  the  approved  com- 
mercial fertilizers  may  be  resorted  to,  but  buy  only  from 
parties  of  good  repute.  When  the  fertilizer,  if  a  super- 
phosphate (or  other  commercial  manure  at  about  equal 
cost),  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  has 
been  spread,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  remove  the  hind 
teeth  from  an  ordinary  cultivator,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to 
the  width  of  the  furrow,  and  pass  it  over  the  fertilizer, 
thus  incorporating  it  with  the  soil.  That  done,  the  soil, 
divided  in  forming  the  furrows,  is  returned  by  splitting 
the  ridges.  This  process  will  be  found  to  form  a  ridge 
over  the  fertilizer  some  inches  higher  than  the  level  of 
the  general  surface.  As  that  is  not  desirable  in  our  cli- 
mate, where  heat  and  drouth  prevail,  rather  than  excess 
of  moisture,  as  in  England,  from  whence  the  practice  of 
ridging  is  derived,  back  down  the  ridges  until  they  are 
nearly  level,  which  brings  the  seed,  when  sown,  near  the 
manure,  so  important  to  stimulate  the  young  plants. 

MANNER  OF  SOWING  TURNIPS. 

Everything  being  now  ready  for  sowing,  with  an 
approved  drill,  and  the  writer  recommends  the  Keeler, 
sow  the  seed,  and  follow  with  a  light  roller  if  drouth 


BOOTS   FOR  STOCK   FEEDING.  145 

•prevail.  The  drill  should  be  adjusted  to  sow  not  less 
than  three  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  if  in  rows,  two  and 
one-half  feet  apart, — not  that  so  much  seed  is  necessary, 
if  any  considerable  percentage  vegetates  and  escapes  the 
fly,  the  scorching  sun,  and  other  unfavorable  influences. 
It  is  probable  that,  if  eight  ounces  of  seed  could  be 
evenly  distributed,  each  grain  germinate,  and  finally 
produce  a  healthy  plant,  there  would  be  a  sufficient 
number  of  plants  to  the  acre ;  but  it  would  be  a  very 
unwise  procedure  to  stint  the  seed  to;  save,  for  the  present 
moment  only,  the  pocket.  The  English,  to  whom  we 
look  for  instruction  in  root  culture,  use  seven  to  eight 
pounds  per  acre,  but  the  turnip  has  been  so  generally 
grown  in  their  country  for  generations,  that  the  fly,  fed 
and  pampered,  has  become  a  most  formidable  pest ;  so 
much  so  that  great  difficulty  is  sometimes  found  in 
securing  a  " stand." 

The  Turnip  Fly. — The  "turnip  fly"  just  referred 
to  is  a  jumping  beetle,  of  greenish-black  color,  and 
about  the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  sometimes  so 
destructive  as  to  devour  every  plant  before  the  farmer  is 
aware  that  the  seed  has  -sprouted.  This  active  little 
insect  hibernates  in  protected  places,  and  from  early 
spring  to  autumn  produces  a  rapid  succession  of  genera- 
tions. The  mature  insects  apparently  reveling  upon  the 
marrow-like  material  of  the  cotyledons  and  first  two  or 
three  pairs  of  leaves  of  the  turnip  and  other  cruciferous 
plants,  deposit  eggs  upon  the  leaves,  which,  in  a  few 
days,  suffer  as  much  from  the  attack  of  the  unseen  larvae 
as  from  the  parent. 

The  remedies,  which  are  only  palliative,  are  thick 
seeding,  dashing  with  sulphur  or  plaster,  light  applica- 
tions of  carbolic  or  whale  oil  soap,  etc.,  and  when  all 
have  failed  or  about  to  fail,  re-sowing  in  fresh  ground. 
A  wet  season  is  prejudicial  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
fly,  and,  with  a  rich  soil,  the  young  plants  soon  acquire 
10 


146  MARKET   GARDENING. 

the  third  pair  of  leaves,  which,  with  those  succeeding, 
are  proof  against  further  injury. 

If  the  sowing  just  described  should,  by  the  ravages 
of  the  fly  or  other  accident,  have  failed,  pass  along  the 
ridges  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow,  to  destroy  any  weeds 
which  may  have  sprouted,  and  re-sow,  as  before.  If, 
from  the  time  lost,  it  may  be  deemed  too  late  to  perfect 
a  crop  of  ruta  bagas  with  certainty,  it  may  be  better  to 
make  the  re-sowing  with  round  or  flat  turnips,  which 
mature  in  a  shorter  season.  Supposing  the  sowing  a 
success,  allow  the  plants  to  reach  the  rough,  or  second 
leaf,  then  proceed  thus :  Taking  a  light  steel  hoe  in 
hand,  and  standing  so  as  to  bring  a  corner  of  the  hoe  in 
an  oblique  direction  with  respect  to  the  line  of  plants, 
and  near  to  them,  the  operator  walks  backward,  drawing 
the  hoe  gently,  and  lightly  skimming  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  and  with  it  all  young  weeds  which  may  have  sprung 
up  contemporary  with  the  crop  ;  returning,  the  opposite 
side  of  the  row,  or  drill,  is  taken,  thus  leaving  only  a 
narrow  line  of  turnip  plants,  nearly  free  from  weeds. 

Thinning  Out. — After  a  few  days,  when  they  have 
grown  somewhat  stronger,  and  are  too  rank  for  the  fly 
to  injure  seriously,  they  may  be  "clumped,"  which  is 
performed  by  taking  a  sharp,  light,  steel  hoe  of  suitable 
size,  say  three  inches  wide,  and,  standing  facing  the  row, 
cut  crosswise,  so  as  to  leave  clumps  of  plants  at  intervals 
of  five  inches.  At  first  the  operator  will  cut  timidly, 
fearing  to  destroy  too  many ;  but  in  a  little  while  he 
will  have  gained  courage,  and  proceed  with  increasing 
speed.  It  is  surprising  with  what  celerity  such  work 
may  be  performed  by  an  expert,  which  any  one  may  be- 
come with  an  hour's  practice.  When  the  plants  left  in 
clumps  have  fully  recovered  from  the  disturbance,  which 
is  unavoidable,  and  again  stand  erect,  the  process  of 
"singling"  commences;  this  is  simply  pulling  out  with 
the  finger  and  thumb  and  casting  aside  all  but  the  most 


ROOTS   FCR   STOCK    FEEDING.  147 

promising  plant  in  each  group  or  clump.  After  the 
lapse  of  a  few  days,  when  the  selected  plants  have  be- 
come upright  and  self-sustaining,  a  very  shallow  furrow 
may  be  cast  from  each  side,  the  earth  thus  removed 
meeting  in  a  ridge  between  the  rows.  If  the  weather  is 
damp  they  may  stand  thus  a  few  days,  each  day  adding 
greatly  to  their  strength  ;  but  if  the  weather  be  hot  and 
dry,  it  is  better  to  proceed  at  once  with  the  hoeing, 
which  done,  the  ridge  of  earth  is  to  be  leveled  down  by 
a  spike-tooth  harrow,  or,  in  its  absence,  a  cultivator 
with  well-worn  teeth,  taking  care  not  to  cast  the  earth 
upon  the  young  plants.  This  process  of  plowing  from 
the  plants,  and  cultivating  immediately  after  to  return 
the  soil,  will  need  to  be  repeated  several  times  during 
the  season  of  growth  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  practiced  with 
great  advantage,  so  long  as  the  space  between  the  rows 
is. not  obstructed  by  foliage,  on  each  repetition  inserting 
the  plow  deeper  than  before.  Thus  the  crop  will  at 
length  stand  daily  increasing  in  vigor  and  bulk,  until 
the  time  arrives  for  placing  it  in  winter  quarters,  in  the 
latitude  of  Philadelphia  not  later  than  the  20th  of 
November. 

METHOD  OF  SAVING  FOR  WINTER  FEEDING. 

The  English,  who  are  our  instructors  in  this  branch 
of  husbandry,  and  have  taught  us  most  of  what  we  know 
on  the  subject,  have  some  advantage  in  climate  over 
Pennsylvania,  though  not  over  the  South,  which  admits 
of  feeding  the  bulbs  as  they  stand  in  the  ground,  as  well 
as  under  cover,  the  stock,  especially  sheep,  being  grazed 
upon  them,  using  hurdles  to  confine  the  flock  to  a  lim- 
ited space.  A  flock  destined  for  the  butcher  are  first 
turned  in,  where  they  may  feed  upon  the  better  portion, 
then  moved  into  a  fresh  inclosure,  thus  exciting  the 
appetite.  These  are  succeeded  by  a  store  flock,  which 
picks  up  the  fragments,  so  that  nothing  is  lost.  This 


148  MAKKET   GARDENING. 

process  corresponds  with  that  of  some  of  our  prairie 
farmers,  who  turn  their  beef  cattle  into  the  standing 
corn  (a  bad  practice  on  the  Atlantic  coast),  and  follow 
by  hogs,  which  find  every  half  digested  grain  passed 
through  the  cattle,  and  fatten  sooner  than  on  dry  corn. 
In  America,  where  a  live-acre  patch  of  ruta  bagns 
cannot  be  found  within  some  of  the  counties,  to  say 
nothing  of  States,  the  statement  may  excite  surprise  that 
a  hundred  acres  in  that  root  on  the  lands  of  a  single  far- 
mer of  Great  Britain  is  by  no  means  unusual;  and 
recently  the  writer  entertained  an  English  farmer  and 
stock-breeder,  making  a  tour  in  this  country,  who,  him- 
self, cultivated  two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  in  roots 
annually. 

HARVESTING  TURNIPS. 

Of  course,  such  large  breadths  demand  every  me- 
chanical device  and  appliance  for  saving  the  crop,  and 
instead  of,  as  with  us,  each  root  destined  to  be  stored 
being  pulled  up  singly  by  the  hand  and  cast  into  a  heap, 
then  again  taken  in  hand  and  topped,  again  cast  into  a 
heap  preparatory  to  being  hauled  away,  they,  on  the 
contrary,  top  with  a  hoe.  A  light,  sharp  steel  hoe  is 
held  perpendicularly  in  hand,  and,  with  a  quick  action, 
drawn  horizontally,  thus  decapitating  each  root  in  suc- 
cession as  it  stands  in  the  ground.  This  done,  they  are 
drawn  out  and  into  windrows  by  a  chain-harrow.  It 
can  be  readily  seen  with  what  celerity  this  labor  may  be 
performed,  and  the  great  saving  in  cost.  With  our 
small  patches  we  can  get  along,  however,  by  the  old 
time-honored  practice ;  with  increasing  breadths  of  land 
in  roots  will  come  improved  methods.  Some  growers 
have  already  adopted  new  systems ;  instead  of  topping 
all  the  roots  of  the  crop,  they  haul  a  portion,  just  as 
pulled  up,  top  and  root,  to  a  convenient  position  near 
the  stables,  place  them  in  a  narrow,  ridge-like  form,  and 


EOOTS   FOR   STOCK  FEEDING.  149 

cover  with  straw,  corn-fodder,  or  any  light,  trashy  ma- 
terial which  may  be  at  hand.  Thus  they  are  preserved 
until  New  Year,  or  longer,  using  from  one  end,  and 
covering  up  after  each  removal.  The  writer  has  pursued 
this  plan  for  many  years.  It  is  true,  in  warm,  damp 
weather,  the  tops  partially  decay,  and  become  somewhat 
slimy,  but  the  roots  do  not  take  harm,  and  cattle  feed 
on  them,  and  the  tops,  also,  with  much  avidity.  Per- 
haps a  little  salt  sprinkled  on  each  mess  would  be  an 
advantage.  For  milch  cows  it  is  recommended  to  give 
salt  when  feeding  turnips,  and  the  better  time  is  imme- 
diately after  milking. 

Pitting  Turnips. — The  main  winter  and  spring 
stock  of  roots  are  preserved  in  pits,  not  mounds,  as 
made  in  some  localities,  narrow  pits,  after  this  fashion  : 
Select  a  suitable  spot,  near  the  stables  if  practicable,  but 
surely  where  the  drainage  is  good,  an  indispensable  pre- 
requisite ;  dig  a  trench  sixteen  inches  wide,  and  as  many 
or  more  inches  in  depth,  the  length  as  convenient  or 
necessary.  In  this  deposit  the  topped  roots,  and  cover 
with  the  earth  dug  out  of  the  trench,  using  a  little  more 
in  addition  as  winter  approaches.  If  cold  may  be  ex- 
pected in  severity,  place  over  all  long  stable  manure,  or 
anything  which  will  impede  the  entry  of  frost  without 
creating  warmth.  Thus  the  writer  has  found  roots  of 
all  descriptions — ruta  bagas,  common  turnips,  carrots, 
beets,  parsnips— to  keep  well.  They  are  accessible  at  all 
times,  and  may  be  removed  in  larger  or  smaller  quantity, 
as  needed  or  desired.  Altogether,  it  is  better  than 
mounds,  which,  being  elevated,  are  exposed  to  frost, 
and  require  care  in  construction.  In  the  pits  described 
the  writer  annually  keeps  beets  and  carrots  far  into  the 
spring,  indeed,  he  has  fed  working  oxen  with  beets,  to 
their  great  delight,  up  to  July  1st. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  may  be  seen  that  theory 
and  practice  should  go  hand  in  hand ;  the  writer  is  sim- 


150  MARKET   GARDENING. 

ply  describing  his  own  operations  at  Bloomsdale,  not 
telling  what  may  possibly  be  done,  and  satisfied  with 
the  utility  of  his  practice,  confidently  recommends  it 
to  others. 

ON  THE  VARIETIES  or  TURNIPS. 

In  England  turnips  are  divided  into  two  distinct 
classes,  those  designed  for  stock  feeding,  and  those  for 
table  use.  They  are  also  divided  into  rough-leaved  and 
smooth-leaved.  The  smooth-leaved  embrace  those  of 
which  the  ruta  baga,  or  "  Swede,"  is  the  type,  and  of 
which  the  purple-topped,  yellow-fleshed  variety  may  be 
taken  as  the  best  representative.  The  rough-leaved 
sorts  are  generally  white-skinned  and  white-fleshed,  some 
purely  white,  others  with  green  or  purple  crowns ; 
though  there  are  also  several  rough-leaved  varieties  with 
yellow  flesh.  These  rough-leaved  sorts  are  again  sub- 
divided into  cattle  and  table  turnips ;  in  the  usually 
limited  culture  in  this  country  such  distinction  is  of 
little  consequence.  The  leading  varieties  for  cattle  feed- 
ing are  here  described  in  the  order  of  their  maturity. 

Large  Early  Red-Top  Globe. — A  variety  of 
white  turnip  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  of 
large  size,  and  rapid  growth,  unusually  attractive,  ap- 
proved and  admired  by  all.  It  is  recommended  mainly 
as  a  valuable  acquisition  for  feeding  cattle. 

Pomeranian  White  Globe. — This  is  a  free  grow- 
ing rough-leaved  sort,  useful  for  both  table  and  stock, 
and  may  be  highly  commended  for  both  purposes.  Tur- 
nip cultivators  need  not  hesitate  to  sow  it,  whether  for 
stock,  market  or  family  use ;  it  is  not  quite  so  rapid  in 
growth  as  the  flat  varieties,  may  be  expected  to  come  in 
as  a  succession  in  autumn,  and  is  admirable  for  table 
use  in  early  winter.  In  short,  the  "Pomeranian  Globe" 
is  eminently  valuable,  and  supplies  every  want  of  a 
white-skinned  variety.  This  is  used  by  stock-breeders 


HOOTS  FOR  STOCK  FEEDING.          151 

for  early  feeding,  also  for  sowing  at  seasons  too  late  to 
secure  a  crop  of  ruta  bagas.  It  is  productive,  hardy, 
and  eclipses  the  "White  Stone." 

White  Norfolk  Globe. — A  very  desirable  variety, 
rapid  in  growth,  globular  in  form,  large,  and  an  admir- 
able keeper,  recommended  especially  for  stock  feeding. 

Amber  Globe. — Is  an  Americanized  foreign  tur- 
nip, almost  indispensable  on  every  farm.  The  flesh, 
when  the  turnip  is  growing,  has  a  very  slight  tinge  of 
yellow,  which  becomes  darker  as  the  root  matures ;  it  is 
as  solid  as  a  ruta  baga,  and,  if  topped  very  closely,  so  as 
to  effectually  arrest  sprouting,  it  may  be  kept  until  late 
in  spring  as  good  as  when  first  gathered.  The  flavor  is 
milder  than  that  of  the  ruta  baga,  therefore  by  some 
highly  esteemed  for  table  purposes.  On  the  whole,  this 
is  the  best  type  of  the  yellow,  rough-leaved  sorts,  and 
fills  every  want  in  that  direction.  The  foliage  of  this 
variety  is  strap-leaved. 

Yellow  Aberdeen,  or  Yellow  Scotch. — It  is  a 
highly  approved  cattle  turnip,  attains  a  large  size,  is 
solid,  nutritious,  a  good  keeper,  and  is,  in  every  respect, 
reliable.  There  are  several  types  under  distinctive 
names,  without  much  variation  in  quality.  Full  justice 
to  this  variety  has  not  been  done.  Observations  and 
experiments  with  the  Aberdeen,  raised  from  seed  pro- 
duced from  American  bulbs,  clearly  shows  that  it  is  a 
variety  of  highest  merit.  It  is  well-adapted  to  cattle- 
feeding,  and  for  table  use  also,  late  in  winter  and  far 
into  the  spring,  when  the  earlier  ripening  varieties  have 
grown  pithy. 

A  friend  exhibited,  at  mid-winter,  a  sample  of  but- 
ter made  by  him,  which  he  assured  us  was  the  result  of 
Aberdeen  turnips  and  corn  fodder  only,  no  grain  or  oil 
food  whatever  having  been  fed.  The  butter  was  of  a 
deep  lemon  tint,  sweet,  well-flavored,  and  would  have 
commanded,  at  that  time,  eighty  to  ninety  cents  per 


152  MABKET 


pound  in  the  Philadelphia  market  ;  we  must  not,  how- 
ever, fail  to  add,  his  stock  was  the  Guernsey.  His 
method  was  to  feed  the  roots,  well  salted,  immediately 
after  milking,  as  many  as  each  animal  felt  disposed  to 
eat.  Thus  treated,  there  was  no  turnip  flavor  percepti- 
ble, either  in  the  milk  or  hutter. 

The  Swede,  or  ruta  baga  is,  perhaps,  the  most  impor- 
tant root  cultivated  for  stock  food  ;  its  rapid  maturity, 
large  bulk  to  a  given  area,  nutritious  quality  and  sani- 
tary properties  commend  it  as  eminently  worthy  of  cul- 
ture. It  has  become  a  practice,  in  the  sale  of  ruta  baga 
seed,  to  create  varieties;  some  actual,  some  fictitious, 
but  it  is  best  not  to  be  misled  by  new  names. 

The  Bloomsdale  Swede  is  the  result  of  long 
years  of  patient,  critical  selection,  and,  on  comparison 
carefully  made  with  intent  to  determine  and  secure  the 
best,  it  was  proved  to  be  unquestionably  the  most  desir- 
able. The  foliage  is  not  super-abundant  (as  in  the 
imported),  the  shape  is  nearly  globular,  the  crown  deep 
purple,  the  flesh  a  rich  yellow. 

BEETS  FOR  CATTLE. 

Under  this  head  American  farmers  embrace  all  beets 
with  certain  characteristics,  whether  they  be  for  stock- 
feeding  or  sugar-making.  What  principally  interests  at 
present  is  the  question,  which  is  best  for  stock  food  ;  as 
preliminary  to  further  remarks  on  beet  culture,  the  first 
question  to  be  solved  by  every  farmer  is  as  to  his  com- 
mand of  necessary  force  to  accomplish,  with  reasonable 
prospect  of  success,  what  he  may  desire,  and  whether  he 
can  devote  a  full  season's  attention  to  the  crop,  or  can 
more  profitably  use  the  time  in  other  directions,  relying 
on  a  crop  of  ruta  baga  and  other  turnips  for  succulent 
food,  which,  though  not  as  nutritious,  may  be  raised  at 
less  cost  of  time  and  labor. 

It  is  emphatically  with  root  culture  as  it  is  in  all 
other  operations  on  the  farm,  a  simple  question  of  dol- 


ROOTS   FOR  STOCK   FEEDING.  153 

lars  and  cents,  and  if  food  less  nutritious  may  be  obtained 
in  quantity  to  compensate  for  deficiency  in  quality,  the 
inferior  may  be  preferable.  Ruta  bagas,  judged  by  that 
rule,  may  be  most  profitable.  Each  one  must  decide 
the  question  for  himself.  Where  circumstances  admit 
there  need  be  no  doubt,  the  greater  advantage  will  be 
found  in  possessing  both,  as  affording  variations  of  diet. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  BEET. 

Long  Blood  Red. — This  is  a  valuable  winter 
table  beet,  and  has  been  brought  to  its  present  state  of 
perfection  by  successive  yearly  selections.  It  is  prefer- 
able to  the  Rochester,  or  Radish  beet,  which  grows  above 
the  surface  and  is  liable  to  be  fibrous.  It  is  held  to  be 
as  rich  in  saccharine  as  either  the  sugar  or  the  mangels, 
with  the  further  highly  important  advantage  from  its 
habit  of  growth,  which  all  who,  as  husbandmen  study 
our  climate,  can  readily  perceive,  namely,  of  withstand- 
ing drouth.  In  our  climate  excessive  heat,  accompanied 
by  prolonged  drouth,  is  a  usual  accompaniment  of  our 
summers,  and  all  who  have  cultivated  either  the  mangels 
or  sugar  beets  have  observed  the  entire  suspension  of 
growth  at  such  periods,  the  foliage  drooping,  frequently 
falling  entirely,  and  followed  by  an  elongated  crown  or 
a  growth  of  woody,  or,  at  leasfc,  fibrous  matter.  This 
substance  is  of  little,  if  any,  value  ;  rejected  by  the 
stock,  it  simply  goes  to  make  manure.  On  the  contrary, 
the  long  blood  beet  grows  mainly  beneath  the  surface, 
and  is,  on  that  account,  less  exposed  to  heat,  and  enabled 
to  resist  drouth.  The  writer  has  never  failed  to  secure 
a  satisfactory  crop,  even  tinder  adverse  circumstances, 
ten  to  twelve  tons  can  be  grown  to  the  acre — besides,  the 
Long  Blood  is  unquestionably  very  rich — the  percentage 
of  sucrose  being  as  great  as  in  the  White  Sugar. 

Silesian  Sugar  Beet — This  is  the  old,  well-known 
form  of  sugar  beet,  long  raised  in  this  country  for  feed- 


154  MARKET   GARDENING. 

ing,  and  is  one  of  the  varieties  cultivated  abroad  for 
sugar.  Heretofore  the  great  effort  has  been  to  obtain 
the  largest  bulk  of  root  food  from  a  given  area,  and 
where  a  primary  object  is  to  supply  merely  succulent 
food  as  distinct  from  dry,  there  is  great  gain  in  quantity. 
Eecent  chemical  analysis  has  demonstrated  that  the  per- 
centage of  saccharine  in  the  large  roots  falls  below  that 
of  the  smaller,  and,  where  the  primary  object  is  sugar, 
cultivators  no  longer  aim  at  large  roots,  but  rather  those 
of  medium  size,  well  matured ;  hence,  it  follows  that  in 
feeding  for  flesh  or  for  butter,  the  smaller  roots,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  weight  fed,  will  accomplish  greater  results. 
The  beet  owes  its  fattening  influences  principally  to  the 
saccharine  matter  contained  in  it.  This  varies  accord- 
ing to  variety,  manure,  soil  and  climatic  influences. 
The  production  in  Germany  averages  one  ton  of  sugar 
to  each  eleven  or  twelve  tons  of  roots.  When  fed  to 
animals,  the  entire  proportion  of  sugar  is  realized,  and 
produces  wonderful  results. 

Imperial  Sugar  Beet. — This,  it  is  claimed,  is  the 
most  profitable  of  the  sugar  varieties,  being  richer  in 
saccharine  qualities  than  the  preceding.  It  has  a  smooth 
skin,  and  shows  the  results  of  careful  selection  and 
breeding. 

MANGEL  WURZEL. 

There  are  several  sub-varieties  of  the  Long  Mangel, 
known  as  the  Mammoth  Long  Red,  Long  Yellow,  Long 
Oxhorn,  Long  White  Green  Topped ;  but  the  writer  will 
here  confine  his  remarks  to  the  first,  inasmuch  as  it 
embraces  all  the  good  qualities  of  others,  and  there  can 
be  no  advantage  in  dividing  attention  between  it  and 
other  sorts  of  similar  shape  and  properties.  The  one 
referred  to  has  long  been  cultivated  as  the  mangel 
wurzel  par  excellence.  In  England,  eighty  tons  have 
frequently  grown  to  the  acre ;  in  this  country,  thirty 
tons  may  be  considered  a  good  crop. 


BOOTS   FOE   STOCK   FEEDING.  155 

Red  and  Yellow  Globe. — There  are  two  round 
types  of  mangels,  each  possessing  very  similar  qualities  ; 
indeed,  the  distinction  is  mainly  in  color,  and,  hence, 
simply  a  matter  of  fancy  in  the  cultivator.  For  facility 
of  harvesting  the  crop  the  globe  form  has  an  advantage 
over  the  long,  as  is  evident  at  sight ;  and  a  further,  and, 
possibly,  more  important  advantage,  is  the  smaller  waste 
in  fibrous  neck,  and  there  is  less  liability  to  suffer,  in 
extreme  drouth,  an  important  consideration,  in  our  cli- 
mate. Seventy  tons  to  the  acre  is  not  uncommon  in 
England. 

Yellow  Oval,  or  Intermediate. — This  variety, 
having  much  to  commend  it,  commands  a  large  share  of 
favor.  It  is  a  productive  variety,  raised  with  great  suc- 
cess on  any  good  soil. 

Golden  Tankard. — A  heavy  producer.  The  rich- 
est colored  and  smoothest  skinned  of  the  family  of  man- 
gels, and  the  most  nutritious  in  its  albuminous  com- 
pounds, proving  forty  per  cent,  higher  than  the  long 
red  mangel.  The  roots  of  this  variety  are  perfect  pic- 
tures. It  is  distinct  in  every  particular,  even  to  the 
color  of  the  leaves,  the  ribs  and  leaf  stems  being  quite 
golden. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  soil  selected  should  be  a  light  loam,  free  from 
hard  clay,  and  if  of  a  slightly  calcareous  nature,  so 
much  the  better ;  plow  deeply,  when  the  apple  is  in 
blossom,  as  a  guide  to  the  season  ;  later  the  crop  may  be 
overtaken  by  drouth.  Harrow  thoroughly,  furrow  out 
to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  with  a  double  mold  board 
plow,  if  such  can  be  had,  or,  if  not,  with  an  ordinary 
plow,  casting  the  earth  both  ways.  Apply  in  the  furrow 
a  liberal  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  or  about 
twenty  dollars'  worth  per  acre  of  commercial  fertilizer, 
the  component  parts  of  which  should  be  soluble  phos- 


156  MAEKET   GARDENING. 

phate  of  lime,  potash,  nitrogen  and  sulphate  of  lime. 
After  the  application  of  the  fertilizer  run  a  subsoil  plow 
in  the  open  furrows,  breaking  up  the  hard  pan  and  dis- 
tributing the  manure.  Deep  culture  is  a  necessity  to 
success,  and  the  sub-soil  plow  the  most  important  imple- 
ment, as  every  inch  the  soil  is  deepened  permits  the 
roots  to  draw  nutriment  from  an  additional  hundred 
tons  of  earth  per  acre.  Next,  split  the  ridges  covering 
the  fertilizer,  and,  transposing  the  relative  positions  of 
ridge  and  furrow,  back  down  the  new  ridges  nearly  to 
the  level  of  the  field,  and  drill  upon  the  flat  so  formed, 
the  seed  thus  being  placed  directly  over  the  fertilizer 
and  broken  subsoil.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  a  roller 
should  follow  the  seed  drill,  to  insure  germination.  An 
advantage  will  be  found  in  preparing  the  ground,  apply- 
ing the  fertilizer  and  splitting  the  ridges,  a  fortnight  in 
advance  of  drilling,  that  a  portion  of  the  fertilizer  may 
have  assumed  an  assimilable  form  for  the  early  subsist- 
ence of  the  young  plants.  A  light  dressing  of  common 
salt  applied  to  the  soil  will  be  found  beneficial  to  the 
best  crop,  especially  in  dry  soil.  When  the  young  plants 
are  half  an  inch  high,  they  should  be  side-scraped  with 
steel  hoes,  and  then  cross-cut  with  four-inch  hoes  into 
clumps  of  three  or  four  plants,  the  clumps  to  be  after- 
wards reduced  to  one  plant  by  hand- weeding  as  more 
fully  described  under  the  head  of  Turnips.  This  process 
will  give  about  thirty  thousand  plants  to  the  acre  if  the 
stand  be  good. 

The  crop  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the 
soil  loose,  that  air  and  moisture  may  more  freely  pene- 
trate to  the  roots.  With  thorough  cultivation  and  sub- 
soil breaking  in  mid-summer,  the  roots  are  not  so  liable 
to  suffer  from  variations  of  temperature  and  moisture ; 
hence,  the  growth  is  more  uniform,  and  the  roots  are 
less  weedy  and  distorted.  During  the  entire  culture 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  leaves  of  the  plants, 
as  with  impaired  lungs,  a  healthy  action  is  impossible. 


HOOTS   FOK   STOCK   FEEDING.  157 

When  the  roots  are  fully  developed,  and  ripe,  which 
will  be  abcwit  the  first  of  October  (and  may  be  known  by 
the  stoppage  of  circulation),  they  should  be  taken  up ; 
if  they  make  a  second  growth,  under  certain  atmospheric 
influences,  a  large  portion  of  the  saccharine  matter  goes 
to  form  new  leaves.  On  the  other  hand,  they  should 
not  be  disturbed  before  maturity,  as  the  formation  of 
saccharine  matter  is  most  rapid  at  that  period.  The 
roots  can  be  taken  out  by  passing  a  subsoil  plow  under 
them,  which,  if  run  deep  enough,  will  escape  all  but  the 
extreme  points,  and  the  saving  in  time  more  than  com- 
pensates for  the  loss  of  product. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  harvesting  the  roots,  that 
they  be  not  bruised;  those  thus  injured  are  apt  to  decay. 
The  tops  should  be  cut  so  closely  as  to  remove  all  leaf- 
buds,  as  the  dampness  of  the  pits  may  cause  the  embryo 
buds  to  burst  forth,  and  thus  exhaust  nutritious  quali- 
ties. The  roots,  when  pulled,  should  be  pitted  without 
delay,  as  described  for  ruta  bagas  or  "Swedes."  The 
European  growers  of  beets  have  a  proverb,  "Out  of  the 
earth  into  the  earth,"  and  with  care  they  may  be  kept 
till  the  first  of  July. 

And  here,  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  repetition,  we 
will  say  that  the  foregoing  remarks  apply  equally  as 
well  to  the  culture  of  the  carrot  and  parsnip.  Every 
stock  breeder  should  grow  the  beet,  in  some  of  its  varie- 
ties, as  he  may  lay  up  for  winter  a  valuable  supply  of 
this  food  at  times  when  Swedes  or  turnips  have  failed, 
by  reason  of  the  fly  or  dry  weather.  The  beet,  though 
requiring  earlier  planting,  is  for  that  reason  more  relia- 
ble in  vegetating,  and  is  well  established  before  the  blaz- 
ing days  of  July,  when  the  turnips  are  just  breaking 
ground,  perhaps  to  be  devoured  by  the  fly.  The  beet 
leaves  may  flag  at  midday,  but  next  morning  the  cells 
are  distended,  the  leaves  crisp  and  full  of  vigor.  Exten- 
sive breadths  of  sugar  beets  are  grown  in  Southern 


158  MARKET   GARDENING. 

Europe,  where  the  Swede  is  seldom  seen,  at  least,  never 
raised  for  cattle,  because  of  the  hot  sun  and*  dry  soils. 
The  beet,  for  feeding  market  cattle,  is  unsurpassed,  and, 
by  deep  pitting,  can  be  kept  from  season  to  season.  By 
the  practice  of  deep  pitting  the  writer  was  enabled,  at 
the  International  Centennial  Exhibition,  May  15th  to 
June  1st,  to  exhibit  twenty  varieties  of  beets,  one  bushel 
of  each,  preserved  in  perfect  condition,  as  sweet  and 
crisp  as  when  taken  from  the  field  in  November,  also 
carrots  in  equally  good  condition.  Southern  readers  are 
advised  to  try  the  beet,  believing  that  they  will  realize 
a  profit. 

ESTIMATE  OF  COST. 

A  crop  of  ten  tons  of  beets  can  be  produced  at  an 
expenditure  varying  from  thirty  to  forty  dollars.  The 
following  estimate  may  be  taken  as  an  approximation, 
soil,  situation,  cost  of  labor  and  fertilizers,  all  having, 
however,  an  important  bearing  upon  the  cost : 

Rent  of  land $  7.00 

Plowing,  harrowing  and  rolling 3.50 

Ridging,  application  of  manure  and  subsoiling 3.00 

Manure 18.00 

Drilling 50 

Thinning,  weeding  and  hoeing 4.00 

Three  cultivations 3.00 

Two  hoeings 5.00 

Subsoiling  between  rows 2.00 

Lifting  the  crop 3.00 

Total $49.00 

The  ten  tons,  under  this  estimate,  would  cost  less 
than  five  dollars  a  ton,  or  about  twelve  cents  a  bushel, 
and  in  the  cultivation  of  large  breadths  the  cost  per  acre 
can  be  reduced,  while  the  production  may  be  increased 
twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent. 

THE  CARROT. 

To  the  dairyman  whose  object  is  gilt-edged  butter 
during  winter,  commanding  readily  double  the  price  of 


BOOTS   FOR   STOCK   FEEDING.  159 

the  ordinary  market  grade,  carrots  may  be  considered 
indispensable.  They  not  only  give  the  richness  of  sweet 
vernal  grass  to  the  milk  and  cream,  but  color  the  butter 
naturally,  beside  which  all  artificial  methods  are  imper- 
fect and  unsatisfactory.  To  the  country  family,  which 
can  afford  the  higher  comforts  of  life,  and  with  whom 
butter  is  not  simply  something  so-called,  irrespective  of 
quality,  perhaps  lard-like  in  substance,  flavor  and  color, 
the  carrot  need  not  be  commended ;  it  speaks  its  own 
praise. 

To  the  dairyman,  whose  object  is  simply  milk,  and 
milk  only,  the  ruta  baga  and  .the  beet  may  supply  his 
wants ;  they  can  be,  especially  the  former,  produced  at 
less  cost  than  the  carrot,  and  will  yield  as  great,  or  even 
greater,  flow  of  milk,  an  advantage  which  need  not  be 
enlarged  upon,  and  it  is  certain  where  either  is  fed  in 
connection  with  only  a  moderate  addition  of  farinaceous 
food,  as  Indian  meal,  in  preference  to  all  else,  butter  of 
prime  quality  may  be  obtained. 

The  Varieties.  Orange  Danvers,  Half  Long. — 
A  valuable  sort  of  the  Half  Long  type,  admirable  in 
color,  fixed  in  habit,  a  wonderful  producer,  the  best  of 
all  for  the  stock  breeder,  and  valuable  to  the  market 
gardener.  With  this  variety  the  planter  secures  the 
largest  return  to  the  acre  with  the  least  difficulty  of 
harvesting. 

Long  Orange,  or  Long  Red  Surrey. — The  Long 
Orange  carrot  is  an  old  standby  for  winter  use.  Eaise 
more  than  needed  for  table  use  and  share  with  the  COAV, 
she  will  make  ample  return  for  the  kindness,  filling  the 
pail  with  rich  milk,  and  giving  the  butter  the  color  and 
flavor  of  that  from  grass. 

Long  White  Belgian  and  Large  Yellow  Bel. 
gian. — These  vary,  principally  in  color,  and  produce 
a  larger  return  than  other  Carrots.  To  the  milkman 
and  to  the  stock-feeder  they  are  worth  much  more 


160  MARKET   GARDENING. 

than  the  cost  of  culture,  promote  liberal  secretion  of 
milk  of  improved  quality  over  that  from  dry  food, 
and  may  be  fed  alternately  with  ruta  bagas  and  beefs, 
with  the  best  results.  The  stock-feeder  will  find  them 
of  high  value.  Fed  to  the  stalled  ox,  or  the  wether, 
being  fattened  for  the  butcher,  or  the  ewe  strengthened 
to  nourish  the  early  lamb,  succulent  food,  just  such  as 
the  carrot  gives,  is  indispensable.  The  experienced 
feeder  will  be  cautious  lest  he  overdo  the  thing,  and 
on  the  first  evidence  of  failing  appreciation  of  the  special 
food  supplied,  will  substitute  some  other;  hence,  the 
importance  of  providing,  variety ;  and  just  here  comes 
in  the  opportunity  to  recommend  a  portion  of  each,  ruta 
bagas,  beets  and  carrots,  so  as  to  alternate  as  needed, 
each  heavily  dusted  with  Indian  meal  and  bran,  and  a 
proper  portion  of  salt,  the  roots,  of  course,  previously 
prepared  by  washing  and  slicing. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  field  culture  of  the  carrot  is  identical  with  that 
prescribed  for  the  beet,  in  every  particular;  the  pro- 
cesses are  the  same,  and  the  time  of  sowing,  also.  Crops 
of  eighteen  hundred  bushels  have  been  raised  to  the  acre, 
and  one-third  of  that  quantity  may  be  confidently  looked 
for  under  proper  conditions  of  soil,  culture  and  season. 

Cultivators  are  advised  to  run  a  subsoil  breaker 
upon  both  sides  of  each  row  at  least  twice  during  the 
season  of  growth,  especially  if  drouth  prevails,  that  the 
fibers  may  be  better  enabled  to  extend,  and  for  the  pro- 
motion of  subterranean  circulation.  This  process  is  rec- 
ommended for  the  culture  of  the  beet  and  mangel.  The 
cost,  per  acre,  of  producing  a  crop  of  carrots  (allowing 
twenty  dollars  for  manure,  and  twenty  dollars  for  prep- 
aration and  culture)  should  not  exceed  forty  dollars ; 
which,  at  four  hundred  bushels,  would  be  ten  cents  a 


BOOTS   FOB   STOCK   FEEDING.  161 

bushel,  and  at  six  hundred  bushels,  less  than  seven  cents 
per  bushel,  for  a  crop,  the  profits  and  advantages  of 
which  need  not  be  enlarged  upon. 

PRESERVATION  OF  CARROTS.  • 

The  carrot  does  not  keep  well,  except  in  cool 
weather,  and  even  in  winter  more  care  is  requisite  than 
with  either  the  ruta  baga  or  beet.  It  is,  therefore,  well 
to  so  adjust  the  consumption  of  the  crop,  that  it  be  used 
up  in  season.  The  narrow  trench  method  of  storing 
beets  for  winter  use,  is  emphatically  the  one  for  this 
root,  above  all  others;  do  not  trust  them  in  a  cellar, 
even,  though  it  be  cool,  nor  in  mounds  piled  two  or 
three  feet  high,  as  was,  and  is  still,  practiced. 

The  methodical  farmer  will  not  be  alarmed  at  the 
injunction  of  caution;  he  knows  it  is  better  not  to 
attempt  anything  which  cannot  be  done  well,  and,  hav- 
ing once  commenced  a  job,  the  only  economic  course  is 
to  see  it  effectually  finished. 

KOHL  RABI,  OR  TURNIP-ROOTED  CABBAGE. 

This  plant  is  a  variation  of  the  cabbage  family, 
fixed  in  character  by  long  years  of  selection.  The  stem 
above  ground  grows  into  globular,  or  olive-shaped  form, 
and  possesses  features  common  to  both  cabbage  and  tur- 
nips. It  is  used  both  for  table  use  and  stock  feeding, 
and  in  parts  of  England,  where  turnips  can  no  longer 
be  produced,  it  has  widely  taken  their  place,  yielding 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  tons  to  the  acre.  Only  a 
few  localities  are  suitable  to  its  growth,  the  requisites 
being  a  moist  atmosphere  and  soil.  In  this  country 
success  can  only  be  assured  on  the  seacoast  or  on  damp 
lowlands. 

The  seed,  two  pounds  to  the  acre,  should  be  sown 
five  to  six  weeks  earlier  than  Swedes  or  ruta  bagas.  The 
land  should  be  furrowed  out  at  two  and  one-half  feet, 
11 


162  MARKET   GARDENING. 

and  dressed  with  an  ammoniacal  fertilizer,  dried  fish, 
marl  or  guano,  the  furrows  closed  and  the  seed  drilled 
on  top  after  smoothing  down.  The  young  plants  should 
be  gut  out  to  ten  inches  apart.  The  plant  is  quite 
hardy,  the  roots  resisting  the  effects  of  frost  for  a  long 
time ;  very  useful  for  sheep  feeding  in  winter.  There 
are  three  leading  sorts,  viz. : 

Purple. — A  variety  having  a  blue  purple  skin. 

White  Vienna. — Very  choice — smooth  light  green 
skin.  Very  few  and  very  small  leaves. 

Large  Green. — Large  bulb,  green  skinned.    Leafy. 

THE  PARSNIP. 

The  original  of  the  cultivated  parsnip  is  found 
growing  wild  in  England,  the  root  white,  aromatic, 
mucilaginous,  sweet,  and  possessing  a  degree  of  acridity 
which  it  loses  by  cultivation. 

In  our  experiments  in  search  of  facts  to  be  used  for 
our  own  advantage  in  stock  feeding,  and  to  be  commun- 
icated for  public  good,  we  have,  from  time  to  time, 
raised  the  parsnip  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  to  a  herd 
of  Channel  Island  cattle,  but  the  results  have  not  con- 
vinced us  of  the  economy,  in  comparison  with  other 
roots,  for  horned  cattle.  There  is  this  advantage,  how- 
ever ;  the  parsnip  never  rots  when  stored,  and  if  work 
presses,  may  be  left  out  over  winter  so  far  north  as  Phil- 
adelphia without  loss,  thus  reserving  this  special  crop 
for  spring  feeding. 

Bloomsdale — A  selection  from  the  Hollow 
Crowned,  shorter,  thicker,  easier  to  take  all  out  of  the 
ground,  and  producing  more  tons  to  the  acre. 

Sugar,  or  Cup. — An  old  variety,  longer  and  slim- 
mer than  the  Bloomsdale,  the  variety  usually  sold.  It 
is  said  that  the  excellence  claimed  for  Guernsey  hams  is 
attributable  to  the  parsnip,  which  is  a  prominent  food 
for  the  hog  of  that  island  ;  it  may  be  well  for  some  one 


BOOTS  FOE   STOCK   FEEDING.  163 

among  ourselves,  who  has  the  opportunity,  to  test  the 
fact.  In  sections  where  frost  does  not  interfere,  a  por- 
tion of  the  crop  may  be  left  over  winter  and  the  hogs  fed 
upon  them  as  they  stand,  the  proportion  of  saccharine 
matter  being  increased  by  frost,  and  the  roots  rendered 
still  more  palatable.  It  seems  practicable,  by  this 
method,  for  breeders  of  swine  to  accomplish,  in  the 
Southern  States,  results  highly  profitable,  in  comparison 
with  cost  of  culture. 

The  writer  desires,  with  this  in  view,  to  urge  the 
culture  of  parsnips  in  all  swine-breeding  sections,  the 
cost  of  the  crop  being  simply  the  culture  and  manure, 
while  production  can  be  made  to  reach  ten  tons  of  roots, 
possessing  nine  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

Time  of  Sowing  Parsnips. — The  seed  of  the 
parsnip,  though  vegetating  freely  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, not  infrequently  fails  when  sown  late,  when  heat 
and  drouth  prevail ;  hence,  it  should  precede  the  carrot 
and  the  beet  by  some  days ;  a  good  guide  to  time  of 
sowing  being  the  blooming  of  the  cherry.  The  direc- 
tions for  the  culture  of  the  beet  apply  to  the  parsnip. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  will  observe  that  the  cul- 
ture of  roots  entails  trouble  and  expense,  and  that  no 
one  should  attempt  it  unless  determined  to  succeed. 
Farming  is,  with  Americans,  in  by  far  too  many  cases, 
a  slipshod  business.  The  merchant,  the  manufacturer, 
the  master-mechanic,  who  should  conduct  his  affairs 
with  careless  irregularity,  indifferent  to  cost  as  compared 
with  compensation,  who  should  be  found  unprepared  at 
the  moment  of  pressing  demands  upon  him,  surely  could 
not  expect  a  successful  issue  to  his  efforts ;  and  why 
should  the  tiller  of  the  soil  expect  exemption  from 
results  almost  inevitable  ?  Farmers,  as  a  class,  are 
laborious  enough — in  many  cases,  far  too  plodding ; 
thought  and  reflection,  united  with  physical  exertion, 
would  accomplish  more.  A  fruitful  source  of  disap- 


164  MARKET   GARDENING. 

poinfcment  proceeds  from  our  attempting  too  much  in 
proportion  to  our  means ;  not  infrequently,  larger 
breadths  of  land  are  designed  for  crops  than  the  capital 
at  command  warrants.  With  the  farmer,  capital  means 
laborers,  manure,  working  stock  and  numerous  incident- 
als, and  the  land  marked  out  for  cropping  should  ever 
be  subordinate  to  these.  In  tillage  it  is,  by  far,  better 
to  do  a  little  well;  there  may  be  profit  in  that;  the 
reverse  is  certain  to  result  in  loss. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
PACKING  AND  SHIPPING  VEGETABLES. 

As  a  rule  all  the  products  of  the  garden,  not  grown 
on  trees  and  hard  wooded  vines,  are  usually  called  vegeta- 
bles, but  at  least  one-half  are  really  fruits.  A  bean,  pea, 
tomato,  eggplant,  melon  and  squash,  is  as  much  a  fruit 
as  an  apple  or  peach,  for  their  enlargement  is  subsequent 
to  flowering.  They  are  borne  on  the  flower  stems  and 
are  the  results  of  fertilized  flowers.  That  kind  of  garden 
plant  alone  is  a  culinary  vegetable  which  develops  tissue 
under  ground,  as  in  the  turnip,  carrot,  onion,  parsnip;  or 
above  ground  as  in  the  leaf-stalks  of  celery,  or  leaves  of 
the  cabbage,  lettuce  and  parsley.  All  these  growths  are 
independent  of  sexual  results,  and  as  a  rule  these  plants 
require  cooking  to  prepare  them  for  food,  although  there 
are  a  few  exceptions. 

These  distinctions,  however,  do  not  bring  cash  to  the 
market  gardener.  He  must,  after  growing  the  articles, 
look  for  his  profit  in  good  packing,  quick  transporta- 
tions, honest  commission  agents  and  a  judicious  selection 
of  markets. 

The  prices  obtained  by  southern  market  gardeners 
shipping  truck  to  Philadelphia,  New  York  and  other  dis- 


PACKING  AND  SHIPPING  VEGETABLES.  165 

tant  points,  depends  so  much  upon  the  manner  of  pack- 
ing that  it  is  a  subject  to  which  too  much  attention  can- 
not be  given. 

To  illustrate:  Florida  egg  plants  sent  to  Philadel- 
phia about  May  1st  command  $7.00  per  barrel-crate,  but 
later  on  in  the  season,  as  the  temperature  increases,  they 
arrive,  often  due  to  bad  packing  and  slow  transportation, 
in  such  decayed  condition  as  to  be  worthless.  Cucum- 
bers, in  the  Philadelphia  market  about  the  last  of  May, 
are  usually  worth  $1.00  per  dozen,  but  as  the  warmer 
weather  of  June  approaches  many  arrive  in  such  bad  con- 
dition as  often  to  remain  unsold.  Beans  in  this  market 
command  in  April  about  $5.00  per  crate,  but  in  May  are 
often  unsalable  on  account  of  bad  packing,  insufficient 
ventilation  in  cars  and  the  holds  of  steamships.  Such 
perishable  articles  should  be  shipped  only  in  crates  hold- 
ing not  over  one  bushel,  better  one-half  bushel,  as  beans 
and  peas  when  discolored  are  unsalable.  Forty-eight 
hours  in  early  spring  is  as  long  as  peas  will  safely  carry, 
sometimes  one  day  is  more  than  they  will  stand. 

Tomatoes  sent  to  Philadelphia  from  the  far  South 
in  March  and  April  are  worth  $3.00  to  $5.00,  but  are  so 
likely  to  decay  during  the  warm  weather  of  June  as  to  be 
unprofitable,  or  perhaps  because  they  come  into  compe- 
tition with  the  new  crop  from  Maryland  and  Delaware. 
Tomato  crates  should  not  be  over  one-half  bushel  in 
capacity,  and  the  fruit  when  picked  not  be  over  half  ripe. 
Two  days'  carriage  is  as  much  as  they  will  withstand. 

Ventilated  Packages. — It  cannot  be  doubted  that 
the  shipping  season  for  vegetables  could  be  much  pro- 
longed by  the  use  of  better  packages  and  better  freight 
cars,  the  sound  condition  being  prolonged  in  proportion 
as  the  packages  are  well  ventilated,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  rotted  condition  increased  in  the  proportion  of  non- 
ventilation. 

All  vegetables  and  fruits  generate  heat  and  moisture, 
and  to  an  increasing  extent  as  the  temperature  rises.  A 


166  MARKET   GARDENING. 

rapid  removal  of  these  exhalations,  as  they  are  in  the  open 
air  while  the  fruit  or  vegetable  remains  growing,  pre- 
serves them  in  good  condition,  but  to  keep  the  vegetables 
in  a  close,  confined  atmosphere  hastens  fermentation  and 
decay.  The  packages  should  be  small,  as  bulk  is  a  hin- 
drance to  ventilation.  Barrels  are  bad  packages  ;  better 
use  double  sized  flat  crates,  with  a  partition.  Costly 
refrigeration  is  not  necessary  if  thorough  ventilation  can 
be  obtained,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  ice  cold  refrig- 
eration ruins  the  flavor  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  Also 
fruits  of  hard-wooded  plants,  as  peaches,  grapes  and 
pears,  and,  we  may  add,  strawberries,  require  more  care- 
ful handling  than  vegetables,  but  no  fruit  will  require 
more  careful  treatment,  critical  sorting  and  packing  than 
tomatoes,  egg-plants  and  cucumbers.  These  the  trucker 
should  pick  when  of  full  size,  and  just  as  the  ripening 
process  is  about  to  set  in,  which  condition  is  indicated  by 
a  distention  of  the  tissues  and  a  disposition  to  change 
color.  No  trucker  who  expects  to  make  a  reputation 
should  ship  small  or  defective  stock ;  in  fact  he  should 
put  himself  in  the  place  of  a  city  purchaser,  and  consider 
what  he  would  buy  from  a  green  grocer  or  provision 
dealer,  and  ship  only  such  quality. 

Crates  and  Packages — When  packing  vegetables 
or  fruit  for  market,  do  not  use  close  boxes,  or  even  ordi- 
nary slatted  boxes,  Well-made  ventilated  fruit  and  veg- 
etable packages  can  be  purchased  in  every  section  of  the 
country  where  market  gardening  is  pursued.  Of  course, 
some  forms  of  packages  are  better  than  others.  Light 
packages  save  freight  and  insure  more  careful  handling. 

Sorting  for  Packing.  —  The  sorting  of  vegetables 
or  fruits  for  shipment  demands  so  much  care  that  every 
imperfect  specimen  should  be  rejected.  The  packing 
should  not  be  done  under  a  broiling  sun,  but  under  a 
shed  or  tree,  so  that  the  goods  may  be  cooled  off  by  every 
passing  breeze,  for,  if  packed  in  temperature  of  90°  or 


PACKING  AND   SHIPPING  VEGETABLES.  167 

100°,  they  will,  when  put  into  close  cars,  soon  develop  a 
temperature  20°  or  30° higher  consequent  upon  a  fermen- 
tation which  might  otherwise  be  avoided,  or  certainly 
deferred. 

Pack  snugly,  using  just  enough  force  to  place  them 
sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  shifting.  Avoid  baskets,  as 
top  weight  injures  specimens  at  bottom.  See  to  it  par- 
ticularly that  every  package  contains  uniform  specimens. 
Do  not  mix  culls  or  second  grade  stock  with  first  class, 
for  by  so  doing  the  contents  of  a  full  package  is  rated  at 
the  market  value  of  the  lower  grade  which  it  contains. 

Outwardly,  packages  should  be  neat  and  attractive, 
as  first  appearances  influence  values.  Every  thoughtful 
shipper  of  vegetables  or  fruits  is  not  only  led  to  pack  uni- 
formly throughout  his  crates,  but  to  ship  in  crates  bear- 
ing his  name,  so  that  what  reputation  he  makes  for  him- 
self may  benefit  him  through  dealers  knowing  his  name 
and  address.  Oranges  and  vegetables  from  certain  par- 
ties in  Florida  have  brought  much  better  prices  and  met 
with  quicker  sales  than  equally  good  products  from  other 
parties,  simply  because  the  brand  on  the  package  was  a 
positive  guarantee  of  quality. 

The  market  is  seldom  broken  in  prices  by  good  fruits 
or  vegetables ;  it  is  the  misshapen,  unripe  and  badly 
selected  products  which  injure  the  sale  of  a  better  article. 
The  inexperienced  grower  of  vegetables  or  fruits  does  not 
have  a  conception  of  how  the  crates  are  handled  before 
reaching  the  possession  of  the  retail  dealer.  Depot  por- 
ters, freight  handlers,  expressmen,  draymen,  storekeep- 
ers, all  working  in  a  hurry  and  doing  their  share  to  shake 
up  and  crush  the  contents,  if  not  to  break  the  package. 
It  may  be  safely  estimated  that  an  ordinary  crop  is  han- 
dled fourteen  or  fifteen  times  before  reaching  the  con- 
sumer. 

The  shipper  must  not  imagine  that  his  goods  are 
to  receive  special  attention  from  transportation  compa- 


168  MAEKET 


nies  or  from  commission  men.  The  companies  care  little 
for  his  individual  interest,  and  the  commission  men,  if 
doing  a  business  of  any  volume,  have  no  time  to  look  to 
special  cases,  but  endeavor  to  deal  equally  with  all  who 
look  to  them  as  agents. 

Early  Shipments.  —  Early  shipments  are  always 
profitable  when  the  fruit  or  vegetable  is  properly  devel- 
oped, but  quality  should  be  aimed  at  by  the  grower, 
rather  than  early,  large,  or  extensive  shipments.  As  an 
example  of  the  evil  effects  to  produce  quantity  at  the 
expense  of  quality,  notice  the  result  of  the  introduction 
of  the  Kolb  Gem  watermelon,  an  early,  reliable  sort,  a 
good  shipper,  showy  outwardly,  but  in  quality  only  third 
class,  so  poor  in  texture  and  flavor  that  the  consumption 
of  early  watermelons  by  people  of  discrimination  has 
fallen  off  to  over  one-half,  because  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  anything  but  a  miserable  Kolb  Gem  until  Northern 
grown  watermelons  come  into  the  market. 

Quality  Most  Important  —  Quality  should  never 
be  sacrificed  to  quantity,  either  in  the  production  of  enor- 
mous yields  to  the  acre  or  in  the  production  of  monstrous 
specimens,  as  so  often  is  the  case  in  cabbage  and  cucum- 
bers. 

Market  Quotations  —  Truckers  to  be  successful 
salesmen  should  be  subscribers  to  one  or  more  of  Produce 
Journals,  that  they  may  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
wants  and  conditions  of  the  various  markets,  sending 
their  products  where  they  are  most  likely  to  bring  the 
best  prices.  Supplies  and  prices,  however,  vary  in  noth- 
ing so  much  as  in  fruits  and  vegetables.  Cities  like 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  or  Boston,  may  take  at  a  good 
price  a  thousand  crates  of  cucumbers  in  one  day,  and  the 
next  day  decline  them  at  any  price. 

Freight  Cars.  —  However  cautious  the  shipper  may 
be,  his  care  and  labor  is  defeated  if  the  railway  com- 
panies do  not  furnish  freight  cars  of  such  design  as  to 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   FARM   AND   GARDEN.  169 

keep  a  steady  stream  of  outside  air  passing  through  and 
over  the  load,  thereby  insuring  good  ventilation.  It  would 
seem  that  it  is  the  railway  companies  which  are  respon- 
sible for  dumping  upon  us,  in  the  months  of  May  and 
June,  such  quantities  of  half  diseased  green  fruit  and 
vegetables. 

The  grower  of  garden  vegetables  for  shipment 
should  plant  a  variety  and  not  confine  himself  to  one,  as 
cucumbers,  cabbage  or  tomatoes,  for  he  never  knows 
when  the  market  will  be  glutted,  and  if  it  be  of  that  sort 
on  which  he  has  built  his  expectations  of  profit  he  may 
be  sadly  disappointed.  In  shipping,  it  is  better  to  ship 
continuously  to  three  or  four  established  markets  than  to 
attempt  to  follow  high  quotations  from  various  sources, 
as  the  conditions  which  regulate  the  prices  may  change 
daily,  and  points  offering  highest  prices  one  day  may  be 
lowest  the  next. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  divide  a  limited  quantity  of  fruit 
or  vegetables  between  many  commission  merchants,  as 
the  returns  in  small  consignments  are  eaten  up  by  the 
expenses  of  cartage  and  handling. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
IMPLEMENTS  FOR  THE  FARM  AND  GARDEN. 

The  improvements  in  the  design  and  practicability 
of  farming  and  gardening  implements  and  tools,  during 
the  last  fifty  years,  has  fully  kept  pace  with  the  mechan- 
ical development  in  machinery  used  in  other  arts,  and  it 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  make  a  brief  reference  to  the 
leading  mechanical  contrivances  used  for  vegetable  gar- 
dening. 

Plows. — The  prices  for  the  ordinary  wood  or  iron 
beam  plows  range  from  five  to  twenty  dollars,  and  for  the 


170  MAKKET   GARDENING. 

sulky  plows,  on  which  the  plowman  rides,  from  forty- 
five  to  sixty  dollars.  In  these  different  makes  are  varia- 
tions in  the  arrangement  of  the  handles  and  beams,  but 
the  principal  difference  consists  in  the  length,  angle,  twist 
or  curve  of  the  mould-board,  the  adjustment  of  the  share 
or  point,  and  the  ease  of  draft.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  plow  most  popular  or  which  seems  to  be  adapted 
to  one  particular  section  does  not  have  the  same  reputa- 
tion in  another. 

This  sometimes  arises  in  a  great  measure  from  local 
fancy  or  prejudice,  sometimes  from  different  conditions 
of  soil. 

A  good  plow  is  a  necessity  to  good  farming,  and  the 
farmer  will  do  best  to  select  one  that  has  proved  to  be 
adapted  to  his  locality  and  is  known  to  his  plowmen. 

Hillside  Plows — Besides  the  ordinary  farm  or 
level  land  plow,  is  the  hillside  or  swivel  plow,  arranged 
to  have  the  mould-board  and  point  swing  on  either  side 
of  the  beam,  so  that  the  furrow  slice  may  be  turned 
down  hill  and  all  the  furrows  lap  in  one  direction,  to  pre- 
vent washing.  This  form  of  plow  is  sometimes  used  for 
level  land  plowing,  as  it  leaves  the  field  without  a  center 
or  dead  furrow,  and  for  that  reason  the  small  sizes  are 
often  preferred  by  market  gardeners.  The  sizes  made 
are  adapted  to  one,  two,  three  or  four  horses,  and  prices 
range  from  five  to  twenty-five  dollars. 

Subsoil  Plows. — These  are  used  to  follow  the  fur- 
row made  by  the  surface  plows.  The  object  of  the  sub- 
soil plowing  is  to  open  and  loosen  the  strata  beneath  the 
furrow  of  the  ordinary  plow,  that  the  soil  may  be  deep- 
ened, drained,  and  consequently  made  warmer.  As  a 
rule  it  is  desirable  to  simply  open  the  soil,  as  stirring  up 
and  mixing  the  upper  and  lower  strata  generally  proves 
injurious.,  except  when  done  with  great  caution.  The 
depth  of  opening  attained  by  subsoil  plows  varies  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  Sizes  are  made  to  suit  one  to 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  FABM   AND   GAIIDEN.  171 

three  horses.  The  smallest  size  is  mostly  used  for  gar- 
den culture. 

Ridging  or  Double  Mould-Board  Plows  are 
useful  for  opening  furrows  to  receive  manure,  and  for 
closing  the  same,  forming  alternate  ridges  upon  which 
to  drill,  and  for  plowing  or  hilling  up,  for  shallow 
ditching,  and  for  listing  corn. 

Sod  and  Subsoil  Plows  are  those  in  which  two 
plows  follow  each  other  on  one  beam,  one  plowing  the 
sod  and  the  other  the  lower  soil.  Too  heavy  for  ordi- 
nary use. 

Cabbage  Plows  are  small,  one-horse  plows,  made 
with  a  low  and  short  mould-board,  so  as  to  plow  close  to 
the  row  without  disturbing  the  plants. 

Potato  Plows,  made  for  plowing  out  potatoes,  are 
constructed  with  high  standards  to  prevent  clogging, 
have  double  mould-boards,  from  the  rear  of  which  prongs 
or  fingers  extend,  which  separate  the  potatoes  from  the 
soil. 

Potato  Diggers  are  machines  made  with  a  wide 
shear  or  scoop  in  front,  running  under  the  potato  hills, 
raising  the  potatoes  to  a  large  sieve  or  grate  in  the  rear, 
from  which  they  are  carried  over  and  deposited  in  con- 
venient position  to  be  lifted.  Capacity  with  two  horses 
said  to  be  four  to  five  acres  per  day. 

Harrows. — The  harrow  is  the  next  important  im- 
plement in  the  preparation  of  the  soil ;  the  old  style 
heavy  wooden  beam  harrows  are  being  superseded  by  the 
lighter  iron  and  steel  frame  harrows.  Many  of  these  are 
arranged  so  that  the  teeth  may  be  changed  from  a  per- 
pendicular to  a  slanting  position ;  they  then  constitute 
what  is  called  smoothing  harrows.  The  wooden  frame 
harrows  are  made  square  and  double,  with  steel  teeth. 

Disk  Harrows.— In  addition  to  the  harrows  with 
teeth,  others  are  made  with  revolving  disks.  In  tearing 
old  unbroken  sod,  hard  baked  or  crusted  land,  black 


172  MARKET   GARDENING. 

bottom  land,  the  disk  harrow  requires  less  power  to  oper- 
ate, and  produces  better  results.  The  operator  rides  on 
the  machine.  Seeders  are  sometimes  attached,  so  that 
the  land  is  prepared  and  seeded  at  one  operation. 

Other  harrows  are  made  with  revolving  steel  blades 
or  knives,  cutting  into  the  soil  and  pulverizing  it  thor- 
oughly. The  same  advantages  are  claimed  for  these  as 
for  the  disk  harrows. 

The  Acme  Pulverizing  Harrow,  Clod  Crusher 
and  Leveler,  is  constructed  with  a  double  row  of 
adjustable  reversible  coulters,  does  good  work  and,  con- 
sequently, has  a  wide  reputation.  The  Spring  Tooth  har- 
row is  another  valuable  form.  The  frame  is  the  shape 
of  a  triangle ;  one  end  of  each  tooth  is  attached  to  the 
frame,  the  other  drags  on  the  ground,  tearing  up  the  soil 
and  pulverizing  it. 

Clod  Crushers  are  shaped  like  a  large  roller,  some- 
times with  spike-like  projectures,  others  being  with  pris- 
matic surfaces.  It  is  a  very  valuable  implement  for  pul- 
verizing lumpy  and  heavy  clay  soils. 

The  Meeker  Disk  Smoothing  Harrow  and 
Crusher  is  principally  used  by  truckers  in  preparing 
the  soil  for  sowing  fine  seeds.  It  consists  of  a  frame 
about  six  feet  square,  having  four  sets  of  rollers.  On 
the  two  forward  rollers  the  disks  are  set  six  inches  apart. 
On  the  two  rear  rollers  the  disks  are  set  three  inches 
apart,  and  work  between  the  forward  rollers.  An  adjust- 
able center-board  acts  as  a  leveller. 

Manure  Spreaders. — These  were  introduced  some 
years  ago,  but,  in  consequence  of  their  cost  and  the  reluc- 
tance of  gardeners  to  abandon  old  methods,  have  not  met 
with  the  success  that  their  importance  would  seem  to 
justify.  The  advantages  of  the  spreading  machine  is 
the  ability  to  do  twice  the  amount  of  work  as  in  the  old 
way,  adding  much  to  the  value  of  the  manure  by  more 
thorough  pulverization  and  more  even  distribution. 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   FARM   AND   GARDEN".  1^3 

The  Lime  Spreader. — This  is  another  very  useful 
implement.  There  are  several  makes,  varying  slightly  in 
details.  Distributing  lime  is  very  laborious  and  unpleas- 
ant, and  a  machine  that  will  relieve  the  farmer  of  this 
labor  should  be  in  more  general  use. 

Horse  Grain  and  Seed  Drills  and  Fertilizing 
Distributers  are  manufactured  in  different  localities 
throughout  the  country,  on  the  same  general  principles, 
but  varying  in  many  particulars,  as  the  arrangement  of 
the  tubes,  rollers,  feed  cog  gear,  gauging  levers,  etc. 
Competition  necessarily  compels  manufacturers  to  con- 
struct their  machines  with  most  desirable  improvements. 
The  machines  are  intended  to  sow  all  kinds  of  grain, 
grass  seed  and  fertilizers,  in  any  desired  quantity  or 
depth,  and,  as  a  rule',  give  general  satisfaction. 

Broadcast  Fertilizer  Distributers  are  another 
contribution  to  the  list  of  labor-saving  implements. 
They  are  arranged  to  sow  commercial  fertilizers,  ashes, 
plaster,  to  crush  lumps  and  hard  substances,  and  sow 
damp  as  regularly  as  dry  materials.  They  are  said  to  be 
simple,  practical  and  durable. 

Hand  Drills  for  Sowing  Garden  Seeds. — There 
are  quite  a  number  of  different  makers  of  these  machines, 
all  claiming  to  be  the  best.  The  principal  leading  ma- 
chines are  the  Keeler,  New  Model,  Mathews,  Planet  Jr., 
Big  Comstock,  Matthew  Improved.  With  one  of  these 
little  machines  the  gardener  can  open  the  furrows,  sow 
the  seed,  cover  and  roll  at  one  time.  In  addition  to  small 
seeds  these  machines  can  be  regulated  to  sow  corn,  beans 
or  peas  on  a  limited  scale. 

Corn  Planters. — On  large  farms,  particularly  in  the 
Western  States,  planting  corn  by  hand  is  almost  entirely 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  more  rapid  and  profitable  mode 
of  planting  in  rows  with  horse  power.  These  machines 
are  arranged  to  plant  single  or  double  rows.  In  some 
machines  the  dropper  receives  its  motion  from  the  wheels 


174  MARKET   GARDENING. 

running  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  in  other's 
the  dropping  is  accomplished  by  raising  a  lever  at  the 
required  distance,  by  hand  or  by  wires.  Fertilizers  are 
also  dropped  in  the  rows  by  special  attachments. 

Hand  Corn  Droppers  are  also  extensively  used, 
and  there  are  many  patterns  of  these  machines.  One  of 
the  best  is  Fisk's  Automatic  ;  it  weighs  between  four  and 
five  pounds,  and  is  said  to  plant  in  all  kinds  and  condi- 
tions of  soil  as  fast  as  a  one-horse  drill. 

Broadcast  Seed  Sowers,  for  sowing  all  kinds  of 
grain,  grass  and  clover  seeds,  are  made  to  operate  by 
hand  or  horse  power.  The  hand  machines  are  capable  of 
sowing  from  four  to  six  acres  per  hour,  and  the  horse 
machines  much  more.  The  hand  machines  will  cover  a 
swath  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty-six  feet,  according  to 
weight  of  the  seed  being  sown,  the  lighter  seeds  carrying 
the  lesser  and  the  heavy  seeds  the  greater  distance.  The 
power  machine  will  carry  a  little  widor  swath.  They  are 
arranged  to  be  attached  to  any  ordinary  farm  wagon. 
The  Pearce's  Improved  Gaboon  machine  is  believed  to  be 
the  best,  but  there  are  several  other  approved  machines. 

The  Potato  Planter. — This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  additions  to  modern  agricultural  machinery. 
The  old  mode  of  dropping  the  potato  cuttings,  piece  by 
piece,  is  a  very  slow  and  laborious  operation,  and  on  large 
areas  is  almost  prohibitory.  The  introduction  of  the 
planters  have  changed  all  this.  They  are  being  intro- 
duced into  all  sections  and  seem  to  give  universal  satis- 
faction. One  man  with  a  machine  and  team  can  plant 
from  six  to  eight  acres  per  day.  The  machine  can  be  set 
to  plant  from  ten  to  twenty-six  inches  apart  in  the  drills, 
the  depth  of  planting  being  regulated  by  the  driver. 
The  marking  out,  plowing  furrow,  dropping  potato  seed, 
either  whole  or  in  pieces,  drilling  fertilizer  and  covering, 
all  constitute  one  operation. 

Rollers — Field  and  garden  rollers  are  used  at  all 
seasons  when  the  soil  is  not  wet,  to  crush  clods  and  com- 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   FARM   AND    GARDEN.  175 

press  the  earth,  either  before  or  after  seeding,  and  on 
grass  lands  and  grain  fields  in  the  early  spring  after 
frost  is  out.  There  is,  unfortunately,  very  little  improve- 
ment in  this  implement  over  those  used  fifty  years  ago ; 
they  are  made  of  wood,  cast  iron  and  wrought  iron, 
some  in  one  section,  others  from  two  to  six  sections. 
The  rollers  in  sections  have  the  advantage  of  turning 
without  dragging.  Sizes  usually  made  are  from  single 
sections  twelve  inches  wide  to  the  six  section  field  roller 
seventy-two  inches  wide.  The  field  rollers  are  supplied 
with  a  box  to  hold  additional  weight. 

Cultivators  or  Horse  Hoes. — These  are  used  for 
cultivating  corn,  potatoes,  cabbages,  etc.,  loosening  the 
soil  and  destroying  weeds  between  the  rows,  also  for 
throwing  the  earth  to  or  from  the  plants.  They  are  con- 
structed with  wrought  iron  frames,  movable  and  adjust- 
able teeth.  By  changing  the  plates  and  moving  the 
standards,  one  machine  can  be  adapted  to  many  different 
purposes.  These  machines  are  manufactured  by  many 
different  parties  throughout  the  country,  but  the  Iron 
Age  and  Planet  Jr.  seem  to  have  the  lead  in  favor. 

Lee's  Horse  Hoe.— This  is  practically  a  weeding 
machine  drawn  by  one  horse,  has  a  wooden  frame  shaped 
like  a  cultivator,  with  eight  curved  spike  teeth  in  front 
followed  by  two  flat  hoes  or  knives;  the  front  teeth  loosen 
the  surface  and  the  flat  hoes  shave  oil  the  weeds,  leaving 
them  on  the  surface  to  die.  Crops  can  be  hoed  with 
these  machines  long  before  other  cultivators  can  be  used, 
as  they  can  cut  within  half  an  inch  of  a  row  without  dis- 
turbing the  plants. 

Two-Horse  Sulky  Cultivators,  with  two  wheels 
and  a  seat  for  the  driver,  and  the  Two-Horse  Walking 
Cultivators  are  in  use  on  many  ordinary  farms,  but  are 
particularly  useful  on  large  plantations.  Working  two 
rows  at  one  operation,  they  accomplish  twice  as  much  as 
the  ordinary  cultivator.  They  are  made  with  the  revers- 


176  MARKET   GARDENING. 

ible  plate  teeth,  or  spring  teeth,  and  are  constructed  so 
as  to  be  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  operator. 

HAND  GARDEN  HOES. 

Notwithstanding  the  introduction  of  improved 
wheel  hoes,  garden  cultivators  and  garden  plows,  the  hand 
hoe  still  retains  its  position  as  an  indispensable  tool.  The 
half-moon  hoe,  the  square  hoe  and  the  scuffle  hoe,  relics 
of  a  past  age,  are,  under  modification,  still  in  use,  made 
of  better  and  lighter  material,  and  of  superior  design. 
It  will  suffice  to  notice  a  few. 

The  Warren  Hoe  is  a  heart-shaped  pointed  hoe, 
having  a  ridge  in  the  center  with  sides  slightly  concave. 
The  operator  may  use  the  point,  the  sides  or  the  wing 
tips,  to  obtain  advantageous  positions  around  growing 
plants.  These  hoes  cost  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  cents. 

Reversible  Scuffle  Hoe. — This  has  an  A-shaped 
blade,  the  shank  of  which  works  in  a  curved  slot,  con- 
trolled by  a  thumb-screw  ;  the  hoe  may  be  set  at  any 
angle,  either  to  push  or  draw. 

The  Crescent  Hoe,  so  named  from  the  shape  of 
the  blade,  has  a  sharp  edge  on  the  outer  and  inner  circle. 
It  is  a  form  of  scuffle  hoe. 

The  Weed  Annihilator  is  a  hoe  having  two  blades 
crossing  each  other,  held  together  in  the  center  by  a  screw 
bolt  connected  with  the  shank  of  the  handle.  It  is  used 
as  a  scuffle  hoe,  the  blades  being  expanded  or  contracted 
as  desired. 

The  Onion  Weeder  is  a  small  triangular  hoe, 
three  inches  wide  on  the  broad  end,  handle  about  eight 
inches  long. 

The  Celery  Hoe  has  a  blade  fourteen  inches  wide 
and  eight  inches  deep,  made  especially  for  hilling  up 
celery.  Handle  six  feet  long. 

The  Trowel  Hoe  is  shaped  like  a  trowel  and  used 
for  marking  out  or  stirring  the  earth  in  very  narrow 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   FARM   AND   GARDEN.  177 

The  Nurseryman's  Hoe  has  two  prongs  about 
nine  inches  long.  It  is  designed  for  grubbing  around  trees. 

The  Hexamer  Hoe  has  six  steel  prongs,  wedged 
into  a  clamp  at  the  end  of  a  five  foot  handle.  It  is  val- 
uable for  loosening  earth  too  hard  for  the  ordinary  hoe, 
and  especially  for  working  in  stony  gronnd.  May  be 
reduced  to  four  or  two  prongs  by  drawing  the  wedge ; 
broken  tines  may  be  replaced  in  the  same  manner. 

Planet  Celery  Earther  or  Hiller.  —  This,  a  two- 
horse  implement,  is  something  like  a  cultivator,  but,  in 
place  of  the  side  arms,  has  two  hilling  steel  wings  forty- 
five  inches  long,  the  rear  ends  of  which  may  be  expanded 
or  contracted  to  such  varying  widths  of  rows,  or  the 
wings  may  be  elevated  as  the  hilling  becomes  higher.  It 
is  also  made  with  a  single  wing.  An  iron  rod  called  a 
leaf  lifter  runs  from  end  to  end  of  the  machine  outside  of 
the  wings  and  lifts  the  leaves,  that  the  earth  may  be 
thrown  up  close  against  the  stems.  The  machine  is  also 
useful  in  cultivating  sweet  potatoes. 

WHEEL  HOES. 

Lee's  Wheel  Hoe. — The  invention  of  a  market 
gardener,  resultant  from  many  years  experience,  is  a  sim- 
ple and  effective  tool.  It  has  a  triangular  or  V  shaped 
iron  frame,  with  five  light  harrow  teeth  in  front  followed 
by  a  flat  steel  knife  for  cutting  weeds.  The  teeth  loosen 
the  earth,  and  the  knife  cuts  off  the  weeds  beneath  the 
surface,  leaving  them  on  the  surface  to  die,  so  that  the 
work  does  not  have  to  be  repeated  for  the  same  growth 
of  weeds.  The  ends  of  the  knife  are  flanged  upwards  to 
prevent  the  earth  covering  small  plants.  The  handles 
reach  down  to  a  wheel  in  front,  giving  the  operator  per- 
fect command  of  the  machine. 

The  Planet,  Jr. — A  double  and  single  wheel  ma- 
chine hoe,  one  form  consisting  of  an  iron  frame  having 
two  wheels  in  front  designed  to  straddle  the  row,  the 


178  MARKET  GARDENING. 

other  form  one  wheel  only  for  cultivating  between  rows. 
A  number  of  attachments  are  used,  designed  for  different 
modes  of  cultivation. 

The  Gem  of  the  Garden  is  also  operated  by  a 
single  wheel  or  two  wheels.  It  is  a  light,  handy  imple- 
ment, having  attachments  of  plows,  hoes  and  scarifiers 
suited  for  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  of  all  kinds. 

The  Jewel  single  and  double  wheel  hoe  is  very 
similar  to  the  Gem,  differing  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
attachments. 

The  Comstock  Garden  Cultivator  and  Weeder. 
— A  single  wheel  hoe  of  iron  frame,  and  with  steel  teeth 
adapted  to  cultivating  onions,  beets,  carrots,  etc.  Is  a 
light  running  machine,  doing  good  work. 

The  Universal  Hoe,  single  or  double  wheel,  has 
blades  on  each  side,  adjusted  by  springs. 

The  Matthew  Weeder,  of  wooden  frame,  one 
wheel,  hoes  with  standard  and  steel  plates. 

The  Champion  Weeder,  iron  frame,  handles  and 
wheel,  with  a  single  flat  pointed  steel  hoe,  very  light  and 
easily  handled. 

The  Rotating  Hand  Cultivator  and  Weeder 
has  iron  frame,  driving  wheel  and  ratchet  wheel.  The 
knives  are  of  steel. 

Hand  Plows,  for  use  in  the  garden,  are  extensively 
used,  and  are  very  efficient  in  the  making  of  plots  too 
small  for  a  horse  plow  and  too  large  to  dig  by  hand. 
Some  are  made  with  a  long  handle  by  which  the  operator 
draws  the  plow  after  him,  others  having  a  wheel  tn  front 
are  made  to  push.  The  hand  plow  may  be  made  as  use- 
ful in  the  garden  as  the  ordinary  plow  in  the  field,  as 
frequent  cropping  at  odd  times  is  rendered  easy  by 
hand  plowing  when  horse  plowing  is  impracticable. 

Fumigators — Fumigation  is  at  times  a  necessity 
in  the  greenhouse  or  conservatory,  to  destroy  by  suffoca- 
tion red  spiders  and  some  other  insect  pests,  so  difficult 
to  reach  that  applications  by  syringes  or  sprayers  fail  to 


IMPLEMENTS   FOE   FARM   AND   GAEDEtf.  179 

kill.  Among  fumigators  maybe  named  the  following  as 
efficient: 

Perlich's  Excelsior  Fumigator,  made  in  the  form 
of  a  sheet-iron  cone,  small  at  the  top  and  gradually  widen- 
ing, and  covering  a  box  with  perforated  top.  Tobacco 
stems  are  packed  in  the  cone  and  lighted  charcoal  placed 
in  the  fire  box  beneath,  which  draws  its  air  from  the  out- 
side, the  suffocating  tobacco  fumes  being  ejected  from 
the  top.  The  apparatus  is  perfectly  safe  and  does  not 
require  watching.  They  are  also  used  in  hospitals  and 
ships  in  case  of  infectious  diseases. 

The  Eureka  Fumigator.  —  This  resembles  the 
Excelsior,  the  difference  in  the  arrangement  being  very 
slight. 

Woodaisne  Fumigator  Bellows. — These  are 
very  efficient  for  fumigating  single  plants  or  small  con- 
servatories. 

Spraying  Machines  and  Atomizers. — The  in- 
crease in  the  depredations  of  insects  of  both  old  and  new 
species  consequent  upon  the  vast  extension  of  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  fruits  and  flowers,  and  the  extension  of 
inter-state  commerce,  has  necessitated  the  invention  and 
manufacture  of  numerous  machines  adapted  for  spraying 
and  puffing  insecticides,  liquid  and  dry,  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  such  pests. 

Some  of  these  inventions  are  adapted  to  small  oper- 
ations, both  in-doors  and  out.  Others  of  larger  capacity 
are  intended  to  operate  in  the  fields  or  orchards. 

Beginning  with  the  smaller  instruments,  there  are 
sprinklers,  sprayers  and  injectors,  for  use  in  the  conserv- 
atory ;  garden  and  greenhouse  syringes,  made  of  brass  or 
tin  ;  bellows  for  spraying  liquid,  Peck's  sprinkler,  brass 
and  tin  portable  pumps,  insect  powder-guns,  dredgerbox 
powder  sifter,  etc. 

For  the  more  extended  operations  in  the  field,  among 
the  many  machines  for  that  purpose,  a  new  device,  copied 
from  the  French,  has  been  introduced,  which  is  said  to 


180  MARKET   GARDENING. 

give  very  satisfactory  results.  It  consists  of  a  flat  copper 
or  tin  can,  designed  to  contain  liquid,  and  be  carried  on 
the  back  of  the  operator  as  a  soldier  carries  his  knapsack. 
The  operator  with  one  hand  works  a  little  force  pump 
connected  with  the  machine,  and  with  the  other  hand 
directs  a  spraying  hose  upon  the  plants.  In  this  way  he 
is  enabled  to  get  over  considerable  ground  in  a  short  time 
and  do  effective  work. 

A  popular  device  is  that  of  a  barrel  on  wheels,  with 
a  pump  attached,  for  throwing  or  spraying  liquid  on  trees 
and  plants.  Instead  of  a  force  pump,  a  pipe  or  hose  is 
sometimes  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a  barrel  elevated  on 
wheels. 

Boxes  on  wheels,  called  garden  engines,  having  a 
pump  attachment,  are  used  for  spraying  trees  and  plants. 

A  very  simple  arrangement  has  been  in  use  for  some 
years  past  for  distributing,  sprinkling  or  dusting  Paris 
green  and  other  powders  on  two  rows  of  plants  at  one 
operation.  It  consists  of  a  barrow,  with  a  single  wheel 
operating  two  revolving  perforated  cylinders,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  barrow,  and  from  which  the  powder  is  sifted 
on  the  plants. 

The  Farmer's  Favorite  Distributer  consists  of  a  tin 
cylinder  with  perforated  bottom,  carried  in  the  hand  like 
a  bucket,  with  which  the  operator  dusts  the  plants  as  he 
walks  along. 

Grass  Edgers. —  On  all  well  managed  lawns  the 
edges  of  walks  and  roads  are  kept  free  from  straggling 
grass  by  several  devices.  For  small  lawns  the  edging 
knife  is  all-sufficient ;  it  is  a  crescent-shaped  steel  blade, 
with  a  handle  socket  in  which  may  be  placed  a  long  or 
short  handle. 

The  Lightning  Lawn  Edge-Trimmer.  — This 
has  a  revolving  steel  disc,  fastened  to  the  edge  of  a  long 
handle.  Pushed  by  the  operator  the  disc  is  put  into 
rapid  motion.  A  simple  and  efficient  tool. 

Grass-Edging  Shears,  although  old  in  style  are 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   FARM   AND   GARDEN.  181 

still  in  use.  They  have  two  handles  about  three  feet  long; 
the  blades  work  vertically,  resting  on  a  small  wheel. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Grass  Edger  is  operated  by  two 
handles  attached  to  an  iron  frame,  with  bearing  wheels  in 
front.  A  revolving  steel  disc  on  the  side  cuts  the  grass, 
and  a  small  plowshare  in  the  rear  removes  the  cut  sod. 

The  Philadelphia  Grass  -  Edger  has  a  set  of 
revolving  knives,  put  in  motion  by  a  bearing  wheel  to 
which  is  attached  a  handle.  The  operator  pushes  the 
wheel  along  the  grass  edge,  the  quick  revolving  knives 
cutting  the  projecting  blades  of  grass,  leaving  the  edges 
well  shaved. 

Richmond  Sod  Cutter. — This  is  an  implement  of 
recent  introduction,  and  to  landscape  gardeners  and 
others  requiring  sods  in  quantity,  is  of  much  value  as  a 
labor-saving  appliance.  Worked  by  one  man  and  a 
horse,  it  is  claimed  that  this  machine  will  cut  from 
thirty  to  forty  thousand  square  feet  of  sod  per  day.  In 
form  it  is  a  square  box,  supported  by  two  small  wheels, 
drawn  by  a  horse,  and  guided  by  handles.  A  flat  steel 
knife  in  front  runs  under  the  sod,  cutting  ribbons  of 
uniform  width  and  thickness. 

Lawn  Sprinklers. — The  lawn  sprinkler  is  a  valu- 
able invention  for  use  on  lawns  and  grass  plots,  in  cities 
and  villages  where  a  supply  of  water  under  pressure  can 
be  had.  The  apparatus  is  made  of  a  single  gas  pipe  two 
and  one-half  or  three  feet  long,  standing  upright,  sup- 
ported on  cast-iron  feet.  Near  the  base  of  the  pipe  is  a 
screw-opening  for  the  attachment  of  a  water  hose.  At 
the  top  arms  are  so  fitted  as  to  revolve  by  the  force  of 
water  pressure ;  they  are  made  hollow  and  perforated, 
and  on  the  end  generally  have  a  perforated  ball  or  bulb. 
As  the  arms  revolve  the  water  is  thrown  out  centrifu- 
gally  in  a  fine  spray  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
number  of  arms  vary  ;  some  machines  have  four,  others 
six  to  eight.  Several  styles  of  small  sprinklers  adapted 
to  more  limited  spaces  are  also  made. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
A  HALF- ACRE  GARDEN". 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  for  a  half  acre,  dur- 
ing the  spring,  and  for  a  succession  of  those  kinds  requir- 
ing sowing  at  later  periods,  will  not  vary  much  from 
the  following  table  : 

Beet  in  three  varieties,  eight  ounces  each. 
.  Beans,  pole,  two  varieties,  two  quarts  each. 
Beans,  dwarf,  three  varieties,  three  quarts  each. 
Corn,  sugar,  four  varieties,  one  quart  each. 
Cucumber,  two  varieties,  eight  ounces  each. 
Carrots,  two  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Celery,  two  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Cabbage,  three  varieties,  one  ounce  each. 
Lettuce,  three  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Melon,  Water,  two  varieties,  two  ounces  each. 
Melon",  Citron,  two  varieties,  two  ounces  each. 
Parsnips,  one  variety,  four  ounces  each. 
Radishes,  three  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Squash,  three  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Spinach,  two  varieties,  eight  ounces  each. 
Tomatoes,  three  varieties,  four  ounces  each. 
Herbs,  four  varieties,  one  ounce  each. 

In  well  managed  gardens  vegetable  seeds  are  sown, 
or  plants  set  out  in  rows,  and  to  enable  the  amateur  to 
make  a  close  calculation  of  the  quantity  of  various  seeds 
required  for  .any  determined  or  measured  area,  the 
writer  gives  the  following  table,  showing  how  much  is 
needed  for  a  row  one  hundred  yards  long.  In  these 
calculations,  however,  it  is  supposed  that  the  seed  are 
fresh,  and  that,  at  least,  eighty  per  cent,  will  vegetate 
under  favorable  conditions. 

182 


A   HALF-ACRE   GARDEN.  183 

To  Sow  ONE  HUNDRED  YARDS. 

Asparagus,  eight  ounces.  Melon,  "Water,  two  ounces. 

Beans,  bush,  three  quarts.  Melon,  Citron,  one  ounce. 

Beans,  lima,  three  pints.  Mustard,  four  ounces. 

Beans,  pole,  one  pint.  Okra,  twelve  ounces. 

Beet,  five  ounces.  Onion,  two  ounces  for  large  bulbs. 

Broccoli,  one-half  ounce.  Onion,  eight  ounces  for  sets. 
Brussels  sprouts,  one-half  ounce.    Parsley,  two  ounces. 

Cabbage,  one  ounce.  Parsnip,  three  ounces. 

Carrot,  three  ounces.  Peas,  three  quarts. 

Cauliflower,  one-half  ounce.  Pepper,  one-half  ounce. 

Celery,  three  ounces.  Pumpkin,  two  ounces. 

Collards,  one-half  ounce.  Radish,  six  ounces. 

Corn,  one  pint.  Rhubarb,  four  ounces. 

Cress,  four  ounces.  Salsify,  four  ounces. 

Cucumber,  four  ounces.  Spinach,  six  ounces. 

Egg  plant,  one-half  ounce.  Squash,  three  ounces. 

Endive,  two  ounces.  Tomato,  one  ounce. 

Leek,  two  ounces.  Turnips,  three  ounces. 
Lettuce,  two  ounces. 

The  thoughtful  cultivator  will,  as  a  necessary  pre- 
caution, provide  himself  with  a  surplus  quantity  of  the 
seeds  he  designs  to  plant,  to  hold  as  a  reserve  for  replant- 
ings,  as  dry  weather,  beating  rains  and  insect  depreda- 
tions often  destroy  the  first  sowings.  The  amateur  gar- 
dener, and  the  expert,  as  well,  should  make  out  a  list  of 
the  varieties  of  vegetables  he  desires  to  have,  and  then 
lay  off  on  a  paper  a  diagram  of  his  garden,  assigning 
certain  rows  to  each  sort.  He  can  then  readily  calculate 
the  amount  of  seed  he  will  require. 

Desirable  Varieties. — Desirable  varieties  of  the 
leading  families  of  garden  vegetables  are  named  as 
follows,  and  in  order  of  maturity  for  table  : 

BEANS.  LETTUCE. 

Extra  Early  Red  Valentine.  Landreth's  Forcing. 

Pink  Eye  Wax.  Reliable. 

Landreth's  Scarlet.  Largest  of  All. 

CABBAGE.  WATERMELON. 

Select  Early  Jersey  Wakefield.  Round  Dark  Icing. 

Reedland  Early  Drumhead.  Long  Light  Icing. 

Large  Late  Flat  Dutch.  Boss. 

CARROT.  CANTALOUPE. 

Blunt  Horn.  Jenny  Lind. 

Half  Long  Coreless.  Extra  Early  Hackensack. 

Nantes  Half  Long.  Acme. 


184  MARKET   GARDENING. 

PARSNIP.  ONIONS. 

Bloomsdale.  Pearl. 

CAULIFLOWER.  Extra  Early  Red- 

Silver  Skin. 
Landreth's  First. 

Snowball.  PEAS- 

Half  Early  Paris.  Landreth  Extra  Early. 

SUGAR  CORN.  Advancer. 

Early  Minnesota.  Telephone. 
Crosby.  RADISH. 

Evergreen.  Short  Topped  Earliest  White. 

CELERY  Prussian  Scarlet  Globe. 

Dwarf  White.  Long  Scarlet  Strap  Leaved' 
White  Plume.  SQUASH. 

Paris  Golden.  Extra  Early  Bush. 

CELERIAC.  Yellow  Summer  Crook  Neck. 

Apple  shaped.  Hubbard. 

CUCUMBER.  TOMATOES. 

Landreth  First.  Extra  Early  Jersey. 

White  Spine.  Beauty. 

Long  Green.  Stone. 

As  it  is  always  desirable,  in  a  garden,  to  haye  a  con- 
tinuous and  rapid  succession  of  crops.  A  system  of 
rotation  must  be  studied  out  and  followed,  otherwise  at 
certain  seasons  part  of  the  garden  will  go  uncropped, 
and  a  direct  loss  ensue,  for  it  is  only  by  attention  to  the 
details  of  a  prompt  succession  of  crops  that  any  cash 
profit  can  be  had  out  of  a  private  garden. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

CALENDER   INDICATING    OPERATIONS   FOR   THE 
NORTHERN  AND  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

JANUARY. 

NORTHERN. — January  is  unfavorable  to  out- door 
labor ;  in  the  garden,  especially,  but  little  can  be  done. 
In  the  orchard  some  work  may  be  attempted.  Rods  for 
beans  and  peas  may  be  made  ready,  manure  collected, 
compost  heaps  formed, — and,  by  the  way,  compost  is 
beyond  all  comparison  the  best  shape  in  which  to  apply 
fertilizers  to  most  vegetable  crops.  Fruit  trees  pruned, 
hedges  clipped — those  formed  of  evergreens  not  till  frost 
has  disappeared — shape  them  narrow  at  the  top,  wide  at 
the  base.  Asparagus  beds  top-dressed  with  compost  and 
salt  preparatory  to  being  dug  when  frost  has  ceased. 
Hot-beds  for  early  forcing  may  be  made  ready. 

SOUTHERN. — For  the  Southern  States  the  writer 
simply  aims  to  remind  the  reader  of  what  may  be  done 
if  the  surroundings  and  climate  be  favorable.  The 
enterprising  man  is  not  usually  deterred  by  fears,  and  if 
his  judgment  leads  him  to  take  the  risk,  he  may  act 
upon  some  of  the  following  suggestions,  if  he  resides 
south  of  the  latitude  of  Charleston.  The  market  gar- 
dener in  the  lower  part  of  the  Florida  Peninsula  culti- 
vates under  conditions  peculiar  alone  to  his  section. 

Sow  radishes  sparsely  from  time  to  time.  Dress 
asparagus  beds  with  compost  and  salt.  This  latter, 
though  an  active  agent,  may  be  safely  given  in  heavy 
dressings  to  asparagus,  and  has  the  further  advantage  of 

185 


186  MARKET   GARDENING. 

destroying  weeds.  Horseradish  cuttings  may  be  put  out 
and  peas  sown  at  intervals ;  and  if  some  are  frosted,  try 
again.  For  very  early  cabbage  select  Summer  Flatbead 
and  Early  Jersey  Wakefield, — these  may  be  sown  for 
Spring  and  early  Summer  use;  the  Keedland  Early 
Drumhead  may  now  be  sown  to  come  in  still  later ;  also 
the  early  Dwarf  Flat  Dutch,  a  variety  which  stands  both 
heat  and  cold,  and  which  can  be  highly  commended — 
thus  keeping  up  an  uninterrupted  succession.  Cauli- 
flower planted  in  the  autumn  will  begin  to  head  and 
may  need  slight  protection  at  this  season.  Broccoli  sown 
in  September  will  begin  to  head,  and  it  should  be  more 
widely  cultivated.  Sow  turnips  for  early  crop,  also 
beets,  carrots,  spinach,  parsley,  all  of  which  may  be 
repeated  next  month.  Hoe  onions  and  other  hardy  crops 
planted  in  Autumn.  Lettuce  plants  from  fall  sowings 
should  be  transplanted ;  celery  earthed  up  as  required ; 
endive  should  now  be  in  full  growth,  and  tied  up  to 
blanch,  in  small  quantities  only  as  needed ;  garlic,  shal- 
lots and  onion  sets  may  still  be  planted,  and  peas  planted 
the  last  of  the  month. 

FEBRUARY. 

NORTHERN. — Next  month  will  bring  its  work,  and 
we  can  now  only  prepare  for  it.  It  is  presumed  that 
all  persons  residing  in  the  country  are  provided  with  a 
cheap  and  simple  hotbed,  for  forwarding  tender  vege- 
tables. Towards  the  close  of  this  month  seeds  of  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  tomato,  egg  plant  and  pepper  may  be 
planted  in  hotbed ;  watch  them  lest  they  suffer  by  frost, 
or,  as  is  not  infrequently  the  case,  from  want  of  sufficient 
air  as  the  weather  becomes  milder,  when  they  will  need 
also  increased  watering. 

If  tools  and  implements  are  likely  to  be  needed,  the 
thoughtful  man  provides  them  in  due  season,  overhauls 
his  stock  of  seeds,  and  makes  out  a  list  of  those  which 


CALENDAR   INDICATING   OPERATIONS.  187 

may  be  needed,  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  in  hand 
before  the  time  of  sowing. 

SOUTHERN. — The  time  for  active  labor  in  the  South- 
ern States  is  at  hand.  Plant  peas,  selecting  the  Extra 
Early,  which  is  unquestionably  the  greatest  bearer  among 
the  first  early  sorts,  and  is  of  fine  flavor.  Among  the 
best  peas  following  in  succession  are  the  American  Won- 
der, Premium  Gem  and  Advancer.  Beans,  cabbage  and 
cauliflower  seed  and  White  Leaved  collards  may  be  sown. 
Remember,  highly  enriched  and  well-tilled  soil  will  alone 
produce  good  crops  of  the  cabbage  tribe,  which  embraces 
the  turnip  and  ruta  baga.  The  cabbage  plants  from 
previous  sowings  should  be  transplanted,  also  lettuce 
plants.  Sow  spinach,  radishes,  carrots,  parsnips,  salsify 
and  beets,  and  re-dress  the  asparagus  beds.  This  delicious 
vegetable  may  be  improved  by  the  application  of  salt  or 
refuse  pickle,  of  which  heavy  dressings  may  be  safely 
given.  Plant  squashes  and  melons.  Do  not  be  deterred 
from  fear  of  loss  by  change  of  temperature ;  the  gard- 
ener who  counts  every  liability  will  be,  in  the  main, 
behind  his  more  enterprising  neighbor.  Plant  Minnesota 
Sugar  corn  for  the  first  crop,  follow  up  with  Crosby 
Sugar,  Early  Mammoth  and  Evergreen  for  succession. 
Plant  early  potatoes,  Ohio  or  Rose. 

MARCH. 

NORTHERN. — Asparagus  seed  maybe  sown,  or  the 
roots  set  out.  For  early  beets  sow  Eclipse,  Philadelphia 
Turnip  and  Early  Blood  Turnip.  Sow  cabbage  in  a 
sheltered  place,  if  not  already  in  hotbed.  Test  Lan- 
dreth's  Earliest,  Very  Early  Wakefield,  Landreth's  Early 
Summer  Flathead,  Early  Market  and  Early  Drumhead. 
Sow  carrots,  Extra  Early  Forcing  cauliflower — attend  to 
those  under  glass.  Celery,  cress,  etc.  Prepare  compost 
and  manure  for  late  hotbeds.  Set  out  horseradish 


188  MARKET   GARDENING. 

plants,  make  hotbeds,  sow  and  transplant  lettuce. 
Attend  to  mushroom  beds  and  sow  mustard.  For  onions 
put  out  as  sets,  those  known  as  "Philadelphia  Buttons" 
keep  the  best.  Of  parsnips,  Bloomsdale  is  the  best. 
Peas,  Extra  Early,  Advancer,  Premium  Gem.  Plant 
early  potatoes ;  the  Early  Ohio  is  a  prolific  early.  Sow 
Market  Gardeners'  and  Summer  White  radish;  the 
Strap-leaved  Long  Scarlet  is  an  improvement  on  the 
old  Long  Scarlet,  and  is  recommended.  Sow  rhubarb 
or  plant  roots.  Sow  seed  of  garden  sage  and  tomatoes 
in  hot-bed  ;  Early  Jersey  ripens  first.  Sow  turnips,  but 
generally  so  far  north  as  Philadelphia  these  directions 
will  apply  better  to  April  than  to  March. 

SOUTHERN. — Southward  of  Washington.  Continue 
to  plant  peas  and  beans;  Landreth's  Scarlet  is  a  fine 
golden  wax.  Transplant  cabbage  plants  from  winter 
beds,  especially  Landreth's  Earliest,  also  Jersey  Wake 
field.  Remember  to  have  fine  head  cabbage  and  lettuce ; 
deep  culture  and  highly  manured  soil  is  required.  Sow 
Extra  Early  Red  onion  and  Extra  Early  Yellow.  Leeks 
may  be  sown  and  a  few  turnips.  Plant  potatoes.  Sow 
carrots  and  parsnips,  if  enough  were  not  sown  last 
month.  Mustard  and  Cutting  lettuce,  for  small  salad, 
should  be  sown  at  least  once  a  fortnight.  Sow  parsley 
and  tomatoes  in  warm  situation ;  those  from  the  hotbed 
may  be  set  out.  Sow  peppers  at  the  close  of  this  month. 
Watermelons  —  Boss  and  Long  Light  Icing — may  be 
planted,  also  Extra  Early  and  Acme  cantaloupe,  and 
Reedland  Giant  muskmelon.  Cucumbers,  First  and 
Choice  ;  Okra,  Landreth's  Long  Green  Pod ;  also  squash 
and  pumpkins.  Beets  and  other  root  crops  sown  last 
month  will  be  advancing ;  they  should  be  thinned  and 
cultivated.  Sow  celery — Paris  Golden,  and  Spinach. 
Dress  asparagus  beds  if  not  already  done,  and  set  out 
strawberry  beds.  French  artichokes,  if  slipped  and 
dressed  last  month,  should  have  attention. 


CALENDAR   INDICATING   OPERATIONS.  189 

APRIL. 

NORTHERN. — The  exact  time  at  which  certain  seeds 
should  be  sown  must  depend  not  only  on  location  in  res- 
pect to  latitude,  but  also  on  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  if  it 
be  heavy,  a  little  delay  will  rather  promote  than  retard 
our  object ;  the  common  sense  of  each  one  must  be  used. 

Sow  asparagus  seed  or  plant  roots,  if  not  attended  to 
last  month.  Wherever  practicable,  a  bed  of  sufficient 
size  should  be  made  to  permit  an  ample  supply  without 
cutting  every  feeble  shoot  which  peeps  above  the  sur- 
face ;  indeed  where  space  and  means  admit,  two  beds 
should  be  maintained,  and  cut  alternate  seasons.  Plant 
Landreth's  Scarlet  and  Pink  Eye  Wax  beans.  Beets, 
Early  and  Long.  Cabbage,  Eeedland,  Early  Drumhead 
and  Late  Flat  Dutch ;  sow  freely  that  there  be  enough 
for  the  fly  and  to  plant  out.  Carrots,  Extra  Early  Forc- 
ing, and  Danvers.  Celery,  if  not  sown  last  month;  aim 
for  large  plants.  Cress  and  cucumbers,  sow  in  warm 
spot.  Plant  horseradish,  if  not  done.  Sow  leeks  and 
lettuce  in  drills,  also  plant  from  beds  of  last  autumn's 
sowing.  Sow  sweet  marjoram  and  mustard  for  salad. 
Sow  nasturtiums  and  onions,  and  plant  buttons  for  table 
use  and  for  sets ;  sow  white,  red  and  yellow  thickly. 
Sow  parsley ;  parsnips,  Bloomsdale  Sugar ;  peas,  early 
and  late,  for  a  succession.  Plant  potatoes ;  Green 
Mountain  is  a  variety  of  very  superior  quality.  Sow 
radish,  Earliest  White,  Prussian  Golden  Globe,  Wliite 
Summer  and  Lady-finger,  for  succession.  Sow  salsify, 
sage  and  spinach,  at  short  intervals ;  also  thyme  and 
tomatoes  on  borders,  to  succeed  those  sown  in  hotbeds. 
Sow  turnips,  if  not  sown  last  month ;  they  may  succeed. 

SOUTHERN. — Spring  sown  cabbage  will  now  be  fit  to 
transplant ;  manure  well,  if  you  expect  fine  heads.  The 
plants  set  out  in  February  and  March  will  require  cul- 
ture, and  deep  tillage  is  demanded  by  the  cabbage  tribe. 


190  MARKET    GARDENING. 

About  the  middle  or  latter  end  of  this  month,  sow  Reed- 
land  Early,  Late  Mountain,  Late  Flat  Dutch,  Late  Drum- 
head, Flat  Dutch  and  Drumhead  Savoy  cabbage  seed,  for 
plants  to  be  set  out  in  June.  Cauliflower  and  broccoli 
may  be  sown.  Carrots,  parsnips  and  beets  previously 
sown  are  now  advancing  in  growth,  and  should  receive 
necessary  care ;  additional  sowings  of  each  may  now  be 
made.  Pearl  onions,  set  out  in  autumn,  should  be  fit 
for  use.  Sow  leeks  for  winter  use.  Turnips  sown  last 
month  should  be  hoed  and  thinned.  Draw  up  the  earth 
to  the  potato  vines.  Sow  radishes  ;  the  White  Summer 
and  Golden  Globe  are  the  best  for  the  season.  Lettuce 
may  be  drilled  where  intended  to  head.  Sow  celery; 
plant  more  cucumbers,  melons  and  squashes.  Study 
varieties.  The  fertilizer  best  adapted  to  these  vines  is 
compost  prepared  the  past  season,  formed  of  decomposed 
manure,  well  rotted  sod,  wood  earth,  etc.  It  is  suffic- 
iently stimulating,  and  will  not  be  likely  to  burn  the 
plants  during  dry  weather,  and  the  vines  will  bear  better 
than  when  of  more  rampant  growth.  Sow  okra,  Long 
Green  Pod,  if  not  already  in.  The  vigilant  gardener  will 
keep  his  eye  upon  the  weeds. 

MAY. 

NORTHERN. —  During  the  past  month  the  hardier 
vegetables  have  been  sown,  and  by  the  middle  of  the 
present  month  all  will  have  been  put  in. 

Plant  bush  beans  for  succession ;  Lima,  Carolina, 
and  other  pole  beans  may  now  be  planted.  Sow  Long 
beets.  Plant  cabbage,  and  sow  seed  if  not  done  last 
month.  Plant  peppers.  Sow  Nantes  carrot.  Remove 
glass  in  cauliflower  frames.  Weed  celery.  Repeat  sow- 
ings for  crops  which  have  failed  when  first  sown.  Plant 
Jersey  Pickle  cucumbers.  Sow  Reliable  lettuce,  Largest 
of  All,  and  Dutch  Butter,  in  drills  to  stand  ;  thin  out  to 
four  inches.  Plant  melons ;  the  best  are  the  Boss  and 


CALENDAR   INDICATING    OPERATIONS.  191 

Long  Light  Icing.  Among  musk  melons  the  Extra 
Early  is  the  first  to  ripen,  but  is  not  as  good  as  many 
others  ;  Acme  is  a  good  variety.  Thin  out  parsnips,  if 
ready. 

SOUTHERN. — Plant  pole  beans,  Lima,  Carolina  and 
Creaseback ;  also  Dwarf  Pink  Eye  Wax.  The  Saddle- 
back is  good.  Sow  cabbage  for  winter;  sow  lettuce, 
Landreth's  Cutting  and  Golden  Curled.  Sow  radishes, 
the  Golden  Globe  and  White  Summer.  Melons,  cucum- 
bers and  squashes  may  be  put  in.  Plant  Landreth's 
Sugar  and  Evergreen  corn,  for  succession.  Sow  peppers 
and  tomatoes  for  plants  for  later  crops.  Set  out  sweet 
potatoes  in  suitable  weather.  Where  water  is  of  easy 
application  it  may  answer  to  supply  it,  otherwise  it 
hardly  pays  the  cost  of  the  labor.  Under  a  burning  sun, 
water  should  not  be  given  directly ;  it  is  better  to  apply 
it  between  rows  of  plants,  they  will  thus  supply  them- 
selves without  the  liability  to  scald. 

JUNE. 

NORTHERN. — The  labors  of  the  gardener  will  mainly 
consist  in  the  tillage  of  the  growing  crop.  The  rapid 
growth  of  weeds  at  this  season  will  admonish  him  of  the 
necessity  of  timely  exertion. 

The  aid  of  appropriate  tools  in  the  culture  of  crops 
and  the  extermination  of  weeds  need  not  be  commended. 
Good  implements  are  indispensable  to  success,  and  he 
who  has  provided  them  will  not  only  have  greater  pleas- 
ure in  his  labors,  but  the  profit  which  attends  the  judic- 
ious application  of  both  time  and  labor. 

Keep  asparagus  beds  clean.  Plant  Bush  or  Bunch 
beans  for  succession,  and  cultivate  those  in  growth. 
Thin  beets  to  four  inches.  Plant  out  broccoli,  those 
sown  in  April ;  also  cabbages,  especially  the  sorts  which 
it  is  desired  shall  come  into  use  in  September  and  Octo- 
ber, in  advance  of  the  winter  varieties.  Plant  out 


192  MARKET   GARDENING. 

celery,  a  portion  for  early  use.  Sow  successive  crops  of 
cucumbers,  of  choice  varieties.  Plant  Early  Mammoth 
Sugar  corn  for  a  succession.  Sow  endive.  Thin  or 
transplant  leeks.  A  few  peas  may  be  planted  as  a  suc- 
cession. 

SOUTHERN. —  Plant  beans;  transplant  cabbage  and 
cauliflower,  and  Spring-heading  broccoli  seed  may  be 
sown.  Cucumbers,  melons  and  squashes  may  be  planted. 
Sow  tomatoes  for  a  succession,  beginning  with  the  Early 
Jersey,  Acme  and  Perfection.  The  chief  labor  in  the 
garden  had  better  be  directed  to  what  is  already  in 
growth  ;  but  few  seeds  sown  in  hot  weather,  in  a  South- 
ern climate,  repay  the  trouble. 

JULY. 

NORTHERN. — This,  like  June,  is  the  month  of  labor 
in  the  garden.  Weeds  are  in  rapid  growth,  plants  are  to 
be  set  out,  and  various  matters  require  attention. 

Plant  Landreth's  Scarlet  beans  for  succession;  beets, 
the  stock-feeding  varieties,  Long  Blood  Sugar ;  mangold 
wurtzel  may  be  planted  for  stock  as  late  as  the  first  of 
July.  June  is,  however,  much  better.  Beets,  Early 
Blood  Eed  Turnip,  and  half  Long  for  late  winter  and 
spring  use,  may  be  sown.  The  winter  sorts  of  cabbage 
should  now  be  planted  out ;  where  many  are  to  be  trans- 
planted it  is  best  to  wait  for  a  suitable  time,  a  heavy  rain 
or  showery  weather  ;  but  in  a  small  garden  cabbages  may 
be  transplanted  at  almost  any  season  by  careful  watering, 
and,  if  need  be,  shading.  Plant  celery.  Sow  endive. 
A  few  peas  may  be  sown,  but  they  seldom  do  well  at  this 
season.  Turnips  of  all  kinds  may  be  sown. 

SOUTHERN.  —  Under  favorable  conditions,  plant 
beans.  Transplant  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  broccoli. 
Transplant  leeks.  Sow  Nantes  carrots  and  parsnips. 
Sow  endive  for  early  crop.  A  few  turnips  may  be  sown. 
Transplant  celery  for  early  supply,  and  prepare  trenches 


CALENDAR  INDICATING   OPERATIONS.  193 

for  the  main  crop.  Spinach  may  be  sown  toward  the 
close  of  the  month.  The  seed  will  not  yegefcate  if  the 
ground  be  dry;  watering  is  practiced  by  some,  but  the 
results  scarcely  repay  the  labor.  Plant  white  potatoes. 
Short  Prolific  and  Jersey  Pickle  cucumbers  may  be 
planted  for  pickles.  Our  remarks  on  ruta  bagas  apply 
with  increased  force,  for  in  the  South  pasturage  is  less 
abundant  than  in  the  North  ;  besides,  it  is  a  most  whole- 
some food  for  man  as  well  as  beast. 

Usually  at  this  season  the  extreme  heat  and  prevail- 
ing drouth  render  it  difficult  to  get  seed  to  vegetate. 
If  failures  occur,  the  only  remedy  is  to  try  again  under 
more  favorable  circumstances.  Much  depends  on  the 
quality  of  the  seed  sown.  The  stale  stuff  not  unfre- 
quently  sold,  only  disappoints  and  annoys.  Therefore, 
purchase  American  grown,  and  that  only  the  product  of 
reliable  persons,  obtained  direct  or  through  merchants 
who  get  their  supplies  from  the  best  sources  and  irre- 
spective of  price.  That  offered  "  remarkably  cheap  "  is 
usually  dear  in  the  end. 

AUGUST. 

NORTHERN. — The  work  of  this  month  does  not  vary 
materially  from  the  month  just  closed.  Cabbage,  for 
winter  use,  may  head  if  planted  at  once.  Earth  up 
celery,  and  plant  for  future  use.  Plant  endive.  Bush 
or  Snap  beans  gathered  late  in  autumn,  may  be  pre- 
served in  brine  (salt  and  water)  for  winter  use,  and  vary 
but  little  from  those  freshly  gathered.  Sow  Forcing  and 
Eeliable  lettuce,  in  drills  to  head.  Sow  peas,  for  this 
vegetable  is  a  delicacy  in  autumn,  and  should  more  fre- 
quently appear  at  table.  Extra  Early,  sown  later  or  at 
end  of  this  month  and  beginning  of  next,  will  perfect 
before  frost.  Sow  Bloomsdale  spinach  for  autumn  use ; 
for  winter  use,  sow  next  month.  Sow  the  Spanish  and 
China  radishes  for  winter,  and  the  Golden  Globe  and 
13 


194  MARKET   GARDENING. 

Red  Turnip  rooted  for  autumn  use.  Sow  ruta  bagas 
without  delay,  if  not  already  done.  Should  the  ground 
be  dry,  work  thoroughly  and  sow  in  the  dust :  the  seed 
may  vegetate  with  the  first  shower.  A  roller  to  com- 
press the  soil  sometimes  promotes  vegetation ;  but  there 
is  this  disadvantage,  if  heavy,  dashing  rain  immediately 
ensues,  the  ground  packs,  and  the  seed  is  lost.  Yellow 
Aberdeen,  Pomeranean  Globe  and  Amber  Globe  turnips 
should  be  sown  early  in  the  month ;  also  the  Sweet  Ger- 
man turnip.  Early  Dutch  and  Red-topped  may  be  sown 
until  first  of  September,  though  ifc  will  do  well  to  sow  at 
least  a  portion  earlier,  as  at  a  late  day  it  is  difficult  to 
remedy  a  failure. 

SOUTHERN. — Sow  Reedland  Early  Drumhead  cab- 
bage seed,  to  head  in  November ;  also  Landreth's  Earli- 
est, Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  Bloonisdale  Early  Market 
and  Early  Dwarf  Flat  Dutch  for  family  use.  Sow  broc- 
coli and  cauliflower,  and  transplant  from  an  earlier  sow- 
ing. Sow  White  Leaved  collards.  Plant  onion  sets  for 
autumn.  Sow  carrots,  squashes  and  ruta  bagas  to  make 
up  deficiencies  in  July  sowing.  Sow  turnips  for  table  use 
at  short  intervals.  Plant  potatoes  for  winter  use.  Drill 
lettuce.  Sow  radishes  from  time  to  time.  Beets  may 
be  sown  for  the  winter  supply.  Seeds  directed  to  be 
sown  this  month,  it  may,  perhaps  be  necessary  to  defer 
until  the  next,  by  reason  of  heat  and  drouth.  Let  the 
young  gardener  be  not  disheartened ;  ultimately  success 
will  attend  persevering  efforts. 

SEPTEMBER. 

NORTHERN. — Many  and  varied  are  the  duties  which 
devolve  upon  the  gardener  at  this  season.  Not  only  do 
the  growing  crops  demand  attention,  but  seeds  are  to  be 
sown  to  provide  the  necessary  plants  for  the  ensuing 
Spring.  Roots  are  to  be  divided  and  reset ;  strawberries 
planted.  Sow  Landreth's  Earliest,  Select  Jersey  Wake- 


CALENDAR   INDICATING   OPERATIONS.  195 

field,  and  Reedland  Early  Drumhead  cabbage,  to  plant 
out  in  autumn,  where  the  locality  admits,  or  box  up  in 
cold  frame  to  keep  until  planting  time  in  spring ;  the 
latter  end  of  the  month  will  be  time  enough  to  sow  in 
the  latitude  of  Philadelphia ;  especially  sow  the  Early 
Market,  also  the  Bloomsdale,  as  a  succession.  The  Early 
Dutch  and  Bed  Topped  turnips  may  be  sown  the  first 
week  in  this  month,  if  failure  has  attended  earlier  efforts. 
In  some  sections  the  fly  devours  the  early  sowing ;  they 
are  less  voracious  after  the  nights  become  cool  and  dews 
heavy.  Earth  up  celery.  Sow  corn  salad,  scurvy  grass 
and  chervil  for  winter  salad.  Sow  Speckled  Dutch  let- 
tuce for  Spring  planting,  the  plants  to  be  kept  during 
the  Winter  in  cold  frames.  Other  good  sorts  for  autumn 
sowing  are  the  Forcing,  Reliable,  and.  Early  Summer. 
Sow  spinach  early  in  the  month  for  autumn  use ;  later 
for  winter  and  spring.  The  Bloomsdale  is  unquestion- 
ably the  hardiest  for  winter,  and  withal  the  best  in  leaf. 

SOUTHERN. — The  work  in  the  garden  has  com- 
menced in  earnest.  It  is  not  too  late  to  plant  beans. 
Transplant  cabbage  sown  last  month ;  Early  Market, 
Early  Dwarf  Flat  Dutch,  Reedland  Early  Drumhead, 
also  the  Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  may  still  be  sown. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  and  the  fore  part  of  next 
month,  sow  Flat  Dutch,  Lake  Mountain,  and  Drum- 
head Savoy  cabbage,  for  use  early  in  the  Spring,  and 
to  secure  a  good  supply,  sow  liberally — the  flies  will  have 
•their  share.  Transplant  cauliflower  and  broccoli,  and 
sow  turnips.  Potatoes  planted  last  month  will  require 
culture.  Bloomsdale  onion  seed  may  be  sown  for  a 
general  crop,  if  Buttons  or  sets  to  plant  are  not  at  hand. 
Get  sets  of  Pearl,  Autumn,  White  Wax  and  Bermuda 
onions,  Carrots  sown  now  will  be  fit  for  use  in  December. 
Spinach  may  be  sown  from  time  to  time ;  also  endive. 
Celery  plants  need  tillage.  Lettuce  may  be  sown,  and 
Landreth's  Forcing  is  a  rare  sort.  Sow  radishes  fre- 
quently ;  especially  winter  radishes. 


196  MARKET  GARDENING. 

OCTOBER. 

NORTHERN. — The  labors  of  the  gardener  are  varied, 
and  he  who  neglects  duties  necessary  to  be  done  loses 
time  not  to  be  regained  ;  the  autumn  is  upon  him.  The 
principal  labors  are,  the  protection  of  crops  already 
grown,  and  transplanting  others.  Top-dress  asparagus 
beds.  Set  out  cabbage  plants  in  a  sheltered  location  and 
on  light  land  for  next  season's  use.  Store  beets  and  car- 
rots now  or  early  next  month.  Plant  out  lettuce  for 
next  spring,  and  dig  potatoes.  Sow  spinach  at  once,  if 
not  sown  last  month.  Plant  the  Bloomsdale  variety,  as 
it  is  hardiest. 

SOUTHERN. — Beans,  planted  last  month,  should  be 
cultivated.  Transplant  cabbage,  also  cauliflower  and 
broccoli.  Set  *out  Bloomsdale  Pearl  onion  sets  and 
Autumn  White  Wax;  these  varieties  are,  indeed,  won- 
derful for  early  maturity,  size  and  appearance.  Plant 
garlic  and  eschalots.  Sow  spinach  for  winter  use. 
Earth  up  celery  in  dry  weather,  and  transplant  from 
seed  bed  for  further  supplies ;  also  lettuce  for  spring 
use.  Sow  radishes  as  required.  Dress  artichokes  pre- 
paratory for  winter.  Dress  asparagus  beds.  Transplant 
strawberries. 

NOVEMBER. 

NORTHERN". — The  season  for  gardening  is  drawing 
to  a  close;  indeed,  it  is  limited  to  the  preservation  of 
roots  and  the  hardier  vegetables  for  winter  use,  and  such 
operations  as  may  be  preparatory  to  another  season. 
Now  is  a  good  time  to  transplant  fruit  and  ornamental 
trees,  shrubbery,  etc.  On  loamy  and  light  land,  we  pre- 
fer, decidedly,  fall  planting,  but  on  heavy  soil,  or  where 
the  subsoil  is  clay,  thus  retaining  the  moisture  near  the 
surface,  spring  may  be  a  more  favorable  season ;  and  it 
is  generally  esteemed  the  best  for  evergreens.  Dress 
asparagus  beds.  Dig  beets  and  store.  Place  cabbages 


CALENDAR  INDICATING   OPERATIONS.  197 

in  safe  quarters.  Dig  carrots  and  store.  Earth  up  cel- 
ery finally.  Drain  vacant  ground  if  needful.  Dig  horse- 
radish and  store  for  convenience.  Examine  onions  in 
store.  Dig  and  pit  parsnips  and  salsify  for  convenient 
access.  From  first  to  twentieth  of  this  month,  according 
to  locality,  the  winter  supply  of  turnips  should  be  pulled 
and  pitted. 

SOUTHERN. — The  garden  work  is  ample  enough  to 
occupy  attention.  Sow  peas ;  if  they  escape  the  frost 
they  will  be  ready  for  use  in  April.  For  sowing  at  this 
season,  we  recommend  Tom  Thumb  and  American  Won- 
der; they  seldom  rise  over  twelve  inches,  are  abundant 
bearers,  and  are,  withal,  quite  early ;  also  Little  Gem, 
the  three  seeming  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  autumn 
sowing  in  the  South,  where,  on  apprehended  frost,  pro- 
tection may  be  given ;  they  are  also  equally  well  suited 
to  early  spring  planting  for  the  same  reason,  and  if 
planted  on  ground  manured  excessively  high,  will  yield 
as  much  to  a  given  quantity  of  land  as  any  pea  known 
to  us.  Set  out  cabbage,  if  plants  remain.  Plant  Pearl, 
Autumn  White  Wax  and  Bermuda  onion  sets.  Blanch 
celery.  Sow  salad  on  sheltered  spots.  Sow  radishes  ;  if 
frost  kills  them,  it  is  only  a  little  labor  lost. 

DECEMBER. 

NORTHERN. — Prepare  compost.  Prepare  dung  for 
hotbeds.  Attend  to  hotbeds.  Sow  radish  and  cauli- 
flower salad  in  frames.  Trench  and  drain  vacant  ground. 
Transplanting  trees  may  still  be  done. 

SOUTHERN. — In  the  far  South,  peas  may  be  sown  to 
succeed  those  of  November.  See  remarks  under  that 
head.  Cabbage  plants,  sown  in  October,  will  be  fit  to 
put  out.  Sow  Landreth's  Earliest,  Select  Jersey  Wake- 
field,  and  Reedland  Early  Drumhead,  to  head  in  January 
and  February.  Sow  radishes  and  lettuce.  Look  over 


198  MARKET   GARDENING. 

the  spinach,  thin  it  as  you  collect  for  daily  use.  Onion 
sets  of  all  kinds  may  now  be  planted.  Prepare  ground 
for  carrots.  Earth  up  celery  in  dry  weather.  Tie  up 
endive.  Prune  fruit  trees,  vines,  etc.  Transplant  all 
hardy  trees. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE  GRASS  QUESTION. 

A  multitude  of  farmers  in  the  corn-growing  States, 
and  a  still  greater  number  in  the  cotton  States  of  this 
country,  are  in  quest  of  profitable  and  reliable  tame 
grasses.  In  an  agricultural  sense,  under  the  designa- 
tion "grass"  is  included  the  true  grasses  and  those  other 
forage  and  hay-making  plants  sown  in  connection  with 
grass,  and  termed  artificial  grasses,  as  Red  Clover, 
Alfalfa,  Sainfoin,  Trefoil,  and  others. 

It  may  be  stated,  in  a  general  way,  that  the  capacity 
of  land  to  grow  desirable  grasses  is  the  measure  of  its 
agricultural  value,  and  the  extent  and  success  in  the 
practice  of  growing  grass  indicates  the  degree  of  advance- 
ment of  a  farmer  in  the  scale  of  merit.  Without  grass, 
although  he  may  produce  some  poor  stringy  beef,  he 
cannot  grow  good  mutton  nor  wool,  nor  will  he  have 
plenty  of  hay.  In  the  South,  particularly,  as  an  out- 
growth of  plenty  of  good  hay  and  liberal  feeding,  that 
important  farm  manufactory  known  as  the  barnyard 
would  be  seen  on  a  half  million  farms,  which  never  knew 
a  barnyard  in  its  practical  sense,  as  a  manufactory  for 
manure.  The  farm,  county  or  State  which  cannot  pro- 
duce its  own  pasturage  for  spring,  summer  and  autumn, 
and  its  own  hay  for  winter,  is  only  half  way  up  in  the 
agricultural  scale,  be  its  other  crops  ever  so  profitable, 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  199 

for  it  is  dependent  on  other  sections  for  an  agricultural 
staple  which  it  should  itself  produce. 

In  locations  where  such  protracted  drouth  prevails 
as  to  hum  up  the  present  standard  perennial  grass,  there 
are  badly  needed  other  varieties  of  grasses  which  will 
resist  drouth,  and,  remaining  green  under  hot  sun,  con- 
tinue to  furnish  a  nutritious  hite  when  others  have  suc- 
cumbed. Bermuda  grass,  a  perennial  from  the  West 
Indies,  to  some  extent  fills  the  requirements,  but  it  has 
the  objectionable  characteristic  of  sometimes  making 
itself  a  nuisance  by  its  persistence. 

While  the  test  of  years  and  the  experience  of  nations 
point  to  certain  perennial  varieties  of  grass  as  standards 
on  ordinary  farming  soils,  it  sometimes  occurs  that  wild 
or  native  sorts  have  high  merit  in  their  respective  local- 
ity. For  instance,  many  of  the  so-called  wild  annual 
grasses  of  the  Southern  States,  so  frequently  looked  upon 
by  the  planter  as  nuisances,  especially  those  that  strive 
to  take  possession  of  cultivated  fields  during  conditions 
of  summer  heat,  almost  deadly  to  standard  varieties  of 
grass  and  other  farm  crops,  are,  many  of  them,  even 
though  some  be  annual  sorts,  just  the  types  to  carry 
coarse-wooled  sheep  through  such  trying  seasons,  condi- 
tions more  serious  to  contemplate  than  the  finding  of 
winter  subsistence.  For,  in  respect  to  winter  feeding  of 
sheep  or  other  cattle,  the  South  has  a  great  advantage 
over  the  North  in  possessing  a  climate  encouraging  grass 
to  grow  almost  continuously,  an  elimination,  to  a  large 
extent,  from  the  costs  of  sheep  husbandry  of  the  North- 
ern expenses  of  housing  the  animals,  and  the  storage 
and  cost  of  prolonged  winter  feeding. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  grasses  must  be 
studied  by  the  thoughtful  farmer  as  respects  their  adapt- 
ability to  his  special  soils,  climate  and  purpose;  for 
instance,  varieties  doing  well  on  dry  land  should  not  be 
sown  on  heavy,  low,  damp  situations,  nor  others  afford- 


200  MAEKET   GAKDEtflNG. 

ing  a  luxuriant  and  nutritious  feed  for  pastured  cattle, 
but  of  a  habit  of  forming  high  tussocks,  should  not  be 
sown  with  the  expectation  of  machine  mowing;  nor, 
again,  should  other  sorts  specially  adapted  to  cutting 
green  and  feeding  in  the  pen  or  stable,  but  which,  like 
Alfalfa,  have  their  crowns  so  elevated  above  the  earth 
level  as  to  be  nibbled  off  by  sheep,  be  sown  for  sheep 
grazing. 

Profitable  farming  in  the  Southern  States  can  best 
be  developed  and  diversified  by  diverting  from  the  ordi- 
nary system  of  cultivation,  or  worse  neglect,  large  areas 
to  pasturage,  and  hay  fields  of  Blue  grass,  Clover,  Alfalfa, 
Alsike  and  Incarnatum,  or,  better,  in  some  locations 
wild  grasses,  thus  enabling  planters  to  feed  some  mil- 
lions of  sheep  and  clip  six  times  as  many  millions  of 
pounds  of  unwashed  wool,  supplemental  to  which  would 
follow  an  extended  culture  in  corn  and  oats. 

It  is  self-evident  that,  to  realize  the  wealth  which 
millions  of  sheep,  with  their  mutton  and  wool,  would 
add  to  the  South,  there  must  be  less  acreage  in  cotton 
and  a  greater  acreage  in  grass,  for,  while  Mexican  sheep, 
having  some  of  the  qualities  of  the  goat,  may  live  on 
such  stuff  as  thistles  and  cactus,  the  finer-bred  sheep 
must  have  an  ample  supply  of  succulent  grass,  with  hay, 
corn  and  oats.  There  is  an  old  proverb  which  is  very 
true,  "No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no  manure;  no 
manure,  no  crops;"  or,  to  illustrate  the  idea  in  other 
language,  there  is  a  French  proverb,  that  grass  is  a 
synonym  for  bread,  beef,  mutton  and  clothing. 

Sheep  farming  naturally  follows  an  advance  in  grass 
farming,  but  the  grass  must  be  provided  before  the 
sheep.  When  obtained,  the  two  preserve  the  fertility  of 
good  lands,  and,  under  good  management,  restore  those 
classed  as  unfertile,  and  enrich  the  State.  Nearly  every 
farm  of  two  hundred  acres  of  arable  land  can  support  a 
flock  of  thirty  to  forty  sheep,  and,  if  it  is  not  in  condi- 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  201 

tion  to  do  so,  its  owner  should  not  rest  till,  with  clover, 
corn,  rye  and  other  green  manures,  he  has  brought  up 
his  farm  to  that  desirable  condition. 

The  American  farmer  need  have  little  fear  of  over- 
production of  wool,  as  the  annual  consumption  in  the 
United  States  amounts  to  600,000,000  pounds  of  un- 
washed wool,  which  may  he  estimated  as  the  clip  from 
100,000,000  sheep.  The  Census  Bureau  of  1890  gives 
the  total  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  xas 
43,000,000,  of  a  value  of  $116,000,000,  and  cutting  290,- 
000,000  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 

In  connection  with  the  extension  of  grass  culture 
on  poor  lands,  much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  green 
manuring  as  a  preparation  of  lands,  to  sustain  a  crop  of 
grass.  For  example,  it  often  occurs  that  thin  soils, 
which,  without  the  expensive  stimulus  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  will  not  develop  a  fair  sod  of  the  standard 
perennial  grasses,  will  yet  grow  a  passable  spring  crop 
of  broadcasted  corn  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet. 
This  plowed  down  before  midsummer,  and  the  field 
again  immediately  broadcasted  with  a  second  sowing  of 
corn,  to  be  plowed  down  in  autumn,  and  followed  by  a 
broadcasted  crop  of  rye,  to  be  plowed  down  in  February 
or  March,  will  be  found  to  have  a  marvellous  fertilizing 
effect  in  sustaining  grass,  or  any  other  crop.  The  man 
who  pursues  such  a  course  of  rejuvenation  of  his  land 
should  have  his  taxes  remitted,  .for  he  is  a  good  example 
in  any  locality,  and  should  be  encouraged.  The  corn 
and  rye  system  of  green  manuring  supersedes  the  slow 
process  of  clover  renovation.  Cultivated  grasses  of  bien- 
nial habit  are,  few  of  them,  after  being  down  for  several 
years,  entirely  able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  but  must 
be  assisted  by  harrowing  and  seeding  on  bare  spots,  top 
dressing  with  fertilizer,  and  rolling.  Worn-out  pastures 
can  be  renovated,  to  a  marked  degree,  by  the  application 
of  bone  phosphates,  dried  fish,  meat  and  blood,  and  the 


202  MARKET   GARDENING. 

nitrate  salts.  Of  late,  in  Europe,  much  attention  has 
been  directed  to  the  use  of  a  new  fertilizer  known  as  slag 
phosphate,  a  by-product  of  the  Basic  process  of  making 
Bessemer  steel.  This  slag  phosphate  seems  especially 
adapted  for  grass,  and  its  trial  is  recommended. 

In  many  localities  the  profits  of  grass  land  can  be 
increased  over  fourfold  by  means  of  irrigation,  and  its 
practice  should  unquestionably  be  pursued  when  the 
conditions  are  favorable ;  that  is,  when  water  in  large 
volume  may  be  cheaply  obtained,  which,  flowing  by 
gravity  from  more  elevated  sources,  can  be  distributed 
beneath  the  surface  by  underground  conductors,  in  open 
ditches,  or  upon  the  surface.  The  writer  once  visited 
the  irrigated  farms  outside  of  Bedford,  England,  and 
was  amazed  at  the  grass  development.  Subsequently, 
visiting  Barking,  below  London,  he  saw  crops  of  rye 
grown  which  produced  a  fresh  cutting  every  three  weeks 
of  ten  tons  to  the  acre.  He  was  informed  that  one  hun- 
dred tons  of  green  rye  grass  had  been  cut  to  the  acre,  in 
a  single  summer. 

While  irrigation,  in  parts  of  the  West,  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope,  is  a  thing  of  everyday  agricultural  practice, 
enforced  by  reason  of  climatic  conditions,  and  cheaply 
practiced  by  reason  of  elevated  water  supplies,  the  sys- 
tem is  almost  unknown  in  the  rainfall  States.  Few 
localities  can  draw  cheap  and  plentiful  supplies  of  water 
from  mountain  sides,  but  even  under  the  expense  of 
pumping  from  rivers,  it  will  pay  to  do  it  on  tracts  suffi- 
ciently large  and  level  for  the  advantageous  distribution 
of  water. 

Over  three  thousand  varieties  of  plants  of  the  grass 
family  are  known  and  described  by  botanists,  and  while 
by  far  the  greater  part  are  of  such  character  as  at  once 
to  remove  them  from  the  list  of  farm  forage  plants, 
there  remains  a  vast  number  not  cultivated,  scarcely 
tested,  but  worthy  of  experiment.  The  list  of  seeds  of 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  203 

forage  grasses  offered  by  European  seed  merchants  at 
the  present  day  numbers  over  two  hundred  annual,  bien- 
nial and  perennial  varieties ;  but,  without  doubt,  the 
number  will,  ere  long,  be  considerably  extended,  for 
there  are  many  wild  forms  of  grasses  all  over  the  world 
well  worthy  of  propagation ;  for  example,  some  of  the 
wild  grasses  of  Texas,  Arizona  and  the  Southwestern 
plains,  rich  when  green,  and  very  nutritious  in  the  form 
of  self-dried  hay.  Many  of  these  may  be  much  improved 
by  critical  selection,  hybridization  and  rich  feeding,  and 
be  fitted  for  cultivation  in  all  high  dry  altitudes  of  the 
cotton  belt.  Among  these  wild  grasses  of  the  plains  the 
most  common  is  the  Grama  grass,  a  perennial  on  the 
heavier  soils,  and  known  botanically  as  Bouteloua  oligos- 
tacTiya.  It  is  found  on  all  the  great  plains  of  the  South- 
west, growing  in  low,  cushion-like  masses,  forming  a 
succession  of  tussocks — a  habit  rendering  it  unsuitable 
for  mowing,  even  if  it  grew  tall  enough  for  hay,  which 
it  does  not.  As  a  pasturage  grass  it  is  highly  nutritious, 
and  cures  good  hay  on  its  own  root. 

The  next  widely  distributed  variety  on  the  prairie  is 
the  Buffalo  grass,  known  as  Buchloe  dactyloides,  a  native 
of  the  plains  from  Texas  up  to  Missouri.  It  is  a  peren- 
nial, affording  a  reliable  supply  of  forage.  In  dry  loca- 
tions it  is  desirable  as  a  lawn  grass.  It  is  of  low  habit, 
seldom  rising  over  four  inches,  and  is  inclined  to  grow 
in  tufts,  or  patches.  It  is  found  in  greatest  breadths  on 
the  Texas  prairies  in  the  vicinity  of  Mesquit  trees,  hence 
it  is  often  called  Mesquit  grass.  It  possesses  a  runner 
of  long  creeping  habit,  and,  once  established  on  con- 
genial soil,  soon  spreads  over  the  adjacent  land.  Bear- 
ing few  seeds,  it  is,  consequently,  best  propagated  by 
cuttings.  When  green,  it  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  and, 
dried  as  hay  on  the  root,  is  very  palatable  to  cattle. 
During  drouths,  when  appearing  to  be  about  dead,  it 
springs  into  life  upon  a  rain,  becoming  green  in  a  few 
hours,  and  developing  with  phenomenal  rapidity. 


204  MARKET    GARDENING. 

Either  of  these  grasses,  no  doubt,  can,  by  selection, 
be  improved  as  respects  productiveness  and  durability — 
they  are  not  referred  to  as  the  only  ones,  or  the  best  ones, 
but  as  examples  of  sorts  already  pastured  upon  by  mil- 
lions of  horses,  cattle  and  sheep.  Why  should  not  these 
and  others  be  brought  to  the  Southeastern  States,  as 
most  efficient  aids  in  the  diversification  of  agricultural 
practice  ? 

Another  American  perennial  grass  not  generally 
known,  but  of  admirable  character  for  Southern  sections, 
is  the  Texas  Blue  grass  (Poa  aracliniferd)  discovered  on 
the  prairies  of  that  State  in  1853.  It  blossoms  there 
about  the  last  of  March,  and  ripens  its  seed  about  the 
middle  of  April.  Its  habit,  in  Southern  States,  is  much 
stronger  than  Kentucky  Blue  grass.  In  Texas,  under 
the  severest  drouths,  it  sometimes  lags  a  little,  but,  after 
autumn  rains,  quickly  springs  into  most  vigorous  growth, 
and  continues  to  grow  all  winter.  It  makes  a  strong 
top  growth  for  hay,  and  a  matted  sod  standing  contin- 
ued pasturing.  It  roots  deeply  and  spreads  rapidly  by 
buds  from  long,  strong,  underground  stems,  which,  by 
their  vigor,  resist  the  encroachment  of  Bermuda  grass. 
Once  established,  it  will  continue  to  stand  for  a  lifetime. 
It  is  best  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots,  20,000  set 
to  the  acre,  or,  say,  one  to  each  two  square  feet.  Six 
pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre. 

These,  and  other  grasses,  will,  before  long,  be 
brought  into  general  cultivation,  indeed,  all  of  our  cul- 
tivated grasses  are  selections  from  wild  forms ;  no  doubt 
very  inferior,  originally;  for  instance,  Timothy,  now 
the  leading  hay  grass  north  of  the  cotton  belt,  was  found 
growing  wild  in  the  hilly  or  mountainous  districts,  by 
the  early  American  colonists,  and  sent  to  England  in 
1763,  where  it  at  once  assumed  the  highest  rank  over 
the  four  or  five  kinds  of  grasses  then  cultivated.  Indeed, 
up  to  1815,  only  four  or  five  kinds  were  cultivated,  and 


THE  GRASS   QUESTION.  205 

it  was  not  until  the  list  of  grasses  was  largely  increased 
and  root  culture  extended,  that  Britisli  agriculture  began 
to  develop,  for  not  till  then  were  there  increased  oppor- 
tunities for  the  extension  of  grazing  and  the  winter  sub- 
sistence of  cattle.  Red  Top  is  another  American  grass, 
first  cultivated  about  1760,  by  the  colonists.  It  was 
soon  followed  by  the  introduction  to  cultivation  of  Ken- 
tucky Blue  grass,  and,  subsequently,  Orchard  grass. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  United  States  furnished 
four  out  of  the  five  principal  hay  and  pasturage  pro- 
ducers used  in  agricultural  practice;  the  fourth,  Red 
Clover,  being  a  native  of  Asia.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  there  yet  remain  others  to  be  brought  into 
cultivation. 

An  observation  of  the  varieties  of  grasses  blooming 
in  a  pasture  will  not  serve  to  determine  the  quality  of 
the  sward,  for  cattle,  eating  off  the  most  palatable  sorts, 
prevent  them  from  reaching  a  condition  of  inflorescence. 
Thus,  those  valuable  varieties  which  perpetuate  them- 
selves by  seed,  sometimes  tend  to  run  out,  leaving  the 
field  to  the  more  unpalatable  sorts,  but  not  always,  for 
nature  provides,  in  the  cases  of  some  grasses,  that  varie- 
ties not  reaching  a  condition  of  seed- bearing,  shall  per- 
petuate themselves  by  abnormal  root  budding. 

Much  can  be  determined  of  the  components  of  a 
pasturage  sward  by  a  study  of  the  structural  character  of 
the  plants,  even  when  grazed  down  to  one  inch.  In  Ger- 
many so  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  analysis  of 
pasturage  grasses  and  the  description  of  varieties,  that 
the  subject  is  no  longer  a  novel  one.  By  such  analyses, 
perennial  grasses  are  distinguished  from  annual-  by  the 
crowns  and  roots ;  crowns  of  perennial  varieties  bearing 
relics  of  the  preceding  year's  growth,  while  to  the  roots 
are  attached  creeping  underground  bud  stems.  A  third 
test  can  be  made  by  dissection  of  the  stalks,  for  in  peren- 
nials only  a  few  embryo  flowers  will  be  found,  while 


206  MARKET   GARDENING. 

among  annual  varieties  every  shoot  will  contain  an 
embryo  flower. 

It  is  equally  easy  to  recognize  the  leading  varieties, 
even  if  closely  eaten  down,  by  examination  of  their  base 
sheaths  and  general  lower  developments.  For  example  : 
Perennial  Rye  grass  possesses  a  flat  sheath,  very  red,  and 
leaves  strongly  ribbed,  with  ears  at  the  base ;  veins  just 
discernible,  even  when  held  up  between  the  eye  and  the 
light.  Meadowy  Fescue  has  a  round  sheath,  decidedly 
red,  leaves  strongly  ribbed,  veins  on  leaves  clearly 
marked  as  white  lines,  upon  examination  by  transmitted 
light.  Crested  Dogtail  possesses  a  half  flat  sheath, 
quite  yellow,  leaves  never  eared.  At  base  of  leaves  a 
collar-like  growth,  peaked  into  two  ear-like  terminals. 
Foxtail,  a  flat  sheath  of  deep  violet  color,  almost  black, 
leaf  ribs  flat. 

Timothy  has  the  base  enlarged  to  a  green,  bulb-like 
growth,  similar  to  a  small,  very  hard  onion.  At  the 
junction  of  the  sheath  and  blade  there  is  found  a  thin 
white  membrane,  with  sharp  white  teeth  on  the  top. 
Blue  grass  has  a  flat,  elliptical  sheath,  light  colored 
leaves,  with  round  ends,  parallel  sides  and  rounded  base, 
fleshy,  hard  and  ribless,  of  a  dark  color  under  trans- 
mitted light.  Orchard  grass  has  the  sheath  broad  and 
flat,  leaves  ribbed,  with  prominent  keel  on  the  under 
surface  ;  conspicuous  thin  white  membrane  at  top  of 
sheath.  Red  Top  is  more  variable  than  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding. The  sheath  is  without  color,  leaves  rolled  thin 
and  dry,  rough  on  both  sides,  ribs  prominent,  margin  of 
leaves  converged  at  base,  never  eared. 

Regarding  compounded  mixtures  of  grass  seeds,  it 
has  been  frequently  stated  that  seedsmen  advocate  mixed 
grasses  for  lawn  and  pasturage,  that  they  may  have  an 
opportunity  to  run  up  the  price.  This  is  a  mistake,  for 
no  pasture  grass  mixture  is  so  costly  as  the  same  meas- 
ure of  pure  Blue  grass,  the  basis  of  all  good  grazing 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  207 

mixtures.  Let  it  be  understood,  the  object  of  mixing 
varieties  of  grass  seeds  is  manifold ;  for  instance,  to 
insure  a  more  numerous  stand  of  plants,  for  some  varie- 
ties may  germinate  better  than  others ;  then,  again,  that 
some  varieties  be  succulent  and  bright,  when  others  are 
dingy,  and  for  pasturage  this  is  a  very  important  con- 
sideration. Another  good  reason  is,  that  soils  vary  so 
much  and  seasons  vary  so  much,  that  it  is  best,  in  seed- 
ing down  a  pasturage,  to  diversify  the  risks. 

The  deliberate  mixing  of  distinct  varieties  of  vege- 
table or  flower  seeds  is  looked  upon,  by  all  men,  as  a 
fraud  of  the  worst  kind,  but  the  intelligent  mixing  of 
distinct  varieties  of  grass  seeds  is  an  art  which  should 
be  encouraged,  for,  properly  done,  it  is  in  the  interest 
of  agriculture's  most  important  crop — green  pasturage 
and  hay.  Upon  the  length  of  time  which  it  is  contem- 
plated to  allow  the  pasturage  to  stand,  depends,  to  a 
large  extent,  the  varieties  of  grass  seeds  to  mix,  as,  for 
example,  Timothy,  Italian  Rye  grass,  Cocksfoot,  White 
and  Alsike  clover  are  all  very  quick  to  develop,  and  suit- 
able for  a  two  or  three  years'  shift,  while,  for  a  longer 
term,  should  be  added  Blue  grass,  Red  Top,  Foxtail, 
Tall  Fescue,  Perennial  Rye,  Lucerne  and  Red  clover. 

While  the  limestone  soils  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee will  sustain,  in  full  vigor,  a  pure  Blue  grass  pas- 
turage for  a  lifetime,  few  soils  in  other  localities  will  be 
found  equal  to  the  task.  On  soils  not  suited  to  Blue 
grass  alone,  good  temporary  pasturage  of  two  to  five 
years'  duration  can  be  obtained,  with  a  careful  selection 
of  varieties  and  satisfactory  results,  realized  under  a  well- 
considered  system  of  rotation.  When  one  departs  from 
the  usual  course  of  sowing  Timothy  with  winter  grain, 
to  be  followed  with  Clover  in  the  spring,  it  is  not  a 
cheap  matter  to  lay  down  a  perfect  pasture,  hay  field  or 
lawn,  for  the  preparation  of  the  land  is  expensive,  and  a 
combination  of  varieties  generally  more  costly  than  the 
simple  varieties  of  Timothy  and  Clover. 


208  MARKET   GARDENING. 

In  laying  down  a  pasture  field,  it  is  best  to  do  it  in 
the  autumn,  if  conditions  of  moisture  will  permit,  for 
the  reason  that  time  is  then  less  precious;  but  spring 
seeding,  when  the  land  is  thoroughly  prepared,  is  quite 
as  effective.  All  prescriptions  for  grass  seed  mixtures, 
however,  are  little  more  than  generalities,  for  no  one 
can  compile  a  table  or  series  of  tables,  showing  the  varie- 
ties positively  adapted  to  different  localities,  for  soils, 
even  on  adjoining  fields,  frequently  vary  so  much  as  to 
require  an  entire  change  in  the  varieties  and  proportions. 
How  much  more  difficult  to  prescribe  for  unknown  soils, 
some,  perhaps,  a  thousand  miles  away. 

The  geological  constitution,  rainfall,  drainage,  alti- 
tude and  objects  Bought,  whether  for  hay  or  grazing,  all 
need  to  be  studied.  The  best  guide  is  the  experience  of 
others  in  one's  location,  but  even  that  is  often  mislead- 
ing, for  we  have  grown  grand  crops  of  Timothy  and 
Clover  in  a  section  of  a  Southern  State,  where  the  farm- 
ers seldom  saved  any  hay,  trusting  almost  entirely  to 
corn  fodder — of  course,  there  were  no  barnyards  worthy 
of  the  name,  in  that  locality.  As  an  example,  for  ordi- 
nary soils  a  pasturage  mixture  might  consist  of  forty 
pounds  to  the  acre  of  Timothy,  Orchard,  Blue  grass, 
Red  Top,  Perennial  Rye  grass  and  Red  clover.  Such  a 
combination  would  be  pretty  certain  to  effect  a  stand, 
and,  when  once  established,  would  comprehend  some 
one  variety  in  luxuriant  growth  throughout  the  extent 
of  the  growing  season. 

Of  course,  in  special  locations,  as  on  lowlands  or 
mountain  sides,  or  on  special  soils,  as  sands,  gravels, 
clays,  loams,  some  of  the  named  sorts  might,  with 
advantage,  be  omitted,  and  others  added.  Timothy,  for 
example,  a  short-lived  hay  grass,  does  .best  on  well- 
drained  land,  and  in  northern  latitudes.  Red  Top,  a 
longer-lived  sort,  does  better  on  moist  land,  even  sus- 
taining long-continued  overflow.  Orchard  grass,  on  the 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  209 

other  hand,  a  good,  all-around  sort,  will  grow  on  dry, 
sandy  loam ;  fairly  well  on  poor  clay,  and  better  on  rich 
bottoms,  so  it  be  not  overflowed,  and  it  even  endures  the 
shade  of  trees.  Bine  grass,  doing  best  on  limestone 
soils,  is  not  a  good  hay  producer,  as  it  is  a  light  cropper, 
difficult  to  cut,  and  harder  to  cure,  but  it  is  eminently  a 
pasturage  and  lawn  grass.  It  is  an  easy  grower,  flourish- 
ing for  a  limited  time  on  gravels,  bottoms  and  clays, 
while  on  limestone  soils,  grazing  fields  have  been  known 
to  remain  in  perfection  for  sixty  years.  It  will  not 
stand  severe  drouth,  but  resists  any  amount  of  frost, 
while  continued  pasturage  only  makes  it  better. 

Thin  seeding  of  grass  is  a  most  serious  mistake,  as  a 
poor  stand  of  grass  only  leaves  room  for  weeds  to  occupy 
the  space.  Consequently,  we  advise  a  very  liberal  appli- 
cation of  seed,  for,  under  the  best  conditions,  as  respects 
preparation  of  land,  distribution  of  seed  and  covering,  a 
large  portion  of  the  seed  will  get  too  deeply  covered  over 
to  vegetate.  Not  more  than  one  farmer  in  a  hundred, 
by  his  field  practice,  shows  any  indication  that  he  real- 
izes the  necessity  of  shallow  covering  of  grass  seeds,  for 
they  generally  put  on  a  harrow  and  cover,  to  a  depth  of 
one  to  two  and  one-half  inches,  delicate  seeds  not  one- 
thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Certainly  the  greater 
part  never  shows  a  green  blade,  for  farmers  seldom  stop 
to  consider  the  delicate  nature  of  the  seeds  they  commit 
to  rough,  cloddy  earth.  One  who  sets  himself  to  esti- 
mate the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound,  will  soon  come  to 
a  realization  of  the  necessity  for  a  perfect  seed  bed,  for 
he  will  find  the  seeds  to  number,  in  a  pound  of  Tall 
Fescue,  250,000,  Eed  clover  280,000,  Orchard  grass 
600,000,  Timothy  1,250,000,  Blue  grass  2,375,000, 
Rough  Meadow  3,000,000,  and  Red  Top  8,000,000.  Can 
it  be  expected  that  over  ten  per  cent,  of  the  seeds  ever 
make  a  plant,  considering  the  rough  tillage  and  careless 
sowing  of  the  ordinary  farmer  ? 
14 


210  MARKET   GARDENING. 

If  one  of  an  inquiring  mind  takes  up  a  sod  from  a 
perfect  grass  pasturage  and  dissects  it,  he  will  find  about 
six  or  seven  distinct  plants  to  every  square  inch,  or  eight 
hundred  plants  to  the  square  foot,  being  about  thirty- 
five  millions  to  the  acre.  To  obtain  such  a  thick  sfcand 
sufficient  seed  must  be  applied,  or  there  will  exist  vacan- 
cies for  the  establishment  of  weeds.  It  may  be  interest- 
ing to  enter  into  a  calculation  of  how  many  seeds  will 
be  applied  to  an  acre  in  thirty  pounds  of  a  mixture 
consisting  of : 


Number  of  Pounds. 

No.  Seeds  to  Pound. 

Total  Seeds. 

Timothy  Five 

1  250  000 

6  250  000 

Orchard    Five  

600,000 

3,000,000 

Red  Top  Five 

8  000  000 

40  000  000 

Blue  grass,  Ten  
Red  Clover,  Five  

5,500,000 
280,000 

25,000,000 
1,400,000 

A  grand  total  of  

75,650,000 

Not  less  than  an  application  of  this  number,  of  over 
seventy-five  millions  of  seeds,  can  be  relied  upon  to  prop- 
erly clothe  an  acre,  an  enormous  number  of  seeds  failing 
to  make  plants  by  reason  of  want  of  vitality,  or 'on 
account  of  inefficient  tillage  or  sowing.  While  the  pre- 
ceding table,  drawn  for  purposes  of  calculation,  might 
serve  as  a  fair  prescription,  the  writer  would  suggest  the 
following  as  covering  a  wide  variety  of  seasons  of  growth, 
and  better  as  respects  reproduction  and  duration  :  Blue 
grass,  ten  pounds ;  Orchard,  ten  pounds ;  Perennial  Eye 
grass,  four  pounds ;  Meadow  Fox  Tail,  four  pounds ; 
Eed  Top,  three  pounds  ;  Timothy,  three  pounds  ;  White 
clover,  three  pounds  ;  Eed  clover,  three  pounds,  or  forty 
pounds  in  all. 

For  lawns,  either  for  surface  effect,  or  designed  to 
resist  tramping,  or  on  athletic  grounds,  a  mixture  is 
required,  differing  in  each  case,  and  both  quite  distinct 
from  that  applied  to  pasturage  or  hay.  A  word  upon 
lawn-making  may  not  be  out  of  place,  for  the  seedsman 
is  often  blamed  for  bad  seed,  when  the  failure  is  the 
result  of  a  neglect  of  proper  precautions  to  insure  sue- 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  211 

cess;  as  much  of  the  success  of  lawn-making  depends 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  ground.  The  land  must  be 
well  plowed,  or  dug  and  harrowed,  or  raked,  to  secure 
thorough  pulverization,  and  after  being  reduced  to  a  per- 
fectly even  surface,  should  be  cleared  of  stumps,  stones, 
roots  and  other  impediments.  The  soil,  if  not  wet,  should 
then  be  made  firm  with  a  heavy  roller,  and  top-dressed 
with  a  good  fertilizer,  unless  the  land  had  received  an 
application  of  seven  to  eight  tons  of  very  short,  well- 
rotted  stable  manure  before  plowing.  We  will  here 
remark  that  stable  manure  is  the  best  of  all  fertilizers, 
but  there  being  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  it,  and  objec- 
tions to  its  use,  on  account  of  its  offensive  appearance 
and  smell,  we  recommend  a  good  grade  of  concentrated 
commercial  fertilizer.  Six  to  seven  hundred  pounds 
to  the  acre  of  such  mixture  should  be  applied.  The  fer- 
tilizer should  be  lightly  harrowed  in  upon  the  seedbed, 
as  it  will  be  lost  to  the  }roung  plants  if  buried  much 
beneath  the  surface.  After  the  harrowing,  the  ground 
should  be  severely  rolled,  that  the  earth  and  seed  may 
be  brought  into  close  contact.  The  lawn  grass  mixture 
should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  forty  pounds  to  the  acre, 
and  rolled  down.  Sowing  in  September  and  October 
will  be  found  most  advantageous  in  latitudes  south  of 
Philadelphia;  in  more  northerly  locations  spring  sowing 
is  most  successfully  practiced,  the  work  being  done  in 
April  and  May. 

Annual  seeds,  natural  to  the  soil,  are  certain  to 
spring  up  before  the  young  grass  becomes  established, 
and  an  inexperienced  person  is  likely  to  conclude  that 
the  weeds  spring  from  weed  seed  in  the  grass  seed,  but 
all  soils  contain  weed  seeds,  and,  upon  tillage,  they  are 
certain  to  vegetate.  The  weeds,  as  they  become  large 
enough,  may  be  cut  down  or  pulled  up ;  after  the  first 
year  their  growth  will  cease.  Frequent  rolling  is  advan- 
tageous in  producing  a  good  lawn,  by  solidifying  the  soil, 


212  MARKET   GABDEKLNG. 

harassing  insects  and  other  vermin,  and  improving  the 
level  of  the  surface.  On  all  lawns  will  regularly  appear, 
in  greater  or  less  numbers,  certain  interlopers,  such  as 
Buttercups,  Plantains,  Dandelions,  all  from  seeds  nat- 
ural to  the  soil.  These  uninvited  guests  should  always 
be  dug  out,  otherwise  subsequent  labor  will  be  increased 
one  hundred  fold  by  their  seeding.  Lawns  may  be 
advantageously  dressed  with  stable  manure  in  December, 
the  long  strawy  portions  being  removed  in  March.  On 
those  portions  of  lawns,  as  around  the  house,  where  an 
immediate  result  in  grass  effect  is  desired,  sod  may  be 
used.  Fair  sod  can  generally  be  had  on  roadsides,  and 
if  carefully  taken  up,  and  when  laid  down  accurately 
jointed  and  solidified  and  covered  with  half  an  inch  of 
rich  compost,  it  will  at  once  start  off,  and  very  soon  be 
as  much  a  fixture  as  the  adjoining  trees  and  shrubs. 
Lawn  grass  of  good  quality  should  produce  a  fair  mat  of 
herbage  in  from  seventy  to  ninety  days.  Some  persons 
offering  lawn  grass  at  a  low  price  are  using  the  so-called 
Canada  Blue  grass,  which  is  not  only  worthless,  but  a 
pest,  and  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Some  people,  after  seeding  a  piece  of  land  with  lawn 
grass,  expect  to  see  a  green  mat  in  two  or  three  weeks, 
but  in  this  they  are  mistaken,  as  the  better  varieties 
of  grass  are  slow  to  produce  effect,  and  when  an  effect  is 
quickly  developed,  it  is  at  the  expense  of  adaptability 
and  permanency.  For  instance,  a  fine  mat  of  green  color 
can  be  had  in  two  weeks  from  a  heavy  sowing  of  White 
Clover,  something  very  effective  and  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
but  clover  is  not  a  grass,  and  is  not  suitable  for  lawns, 
failing  to  produce  that  velvet-like  effect,  the  result  of 
the  growth  of  the  erect  leaves  produced  by  the  best 
grasses,  which  habit  fits  them  to  quickly  recover  after 
mowing.  Manures  or  fertilizers  for  lawns  may  be  of 
many  combinations.  We  recommend,  to  those  who  pre- 
fer to  do  their  own  mixing,  a  compound  of  three  hun- 


THE   GRASS   QUESTION.  213 

dred  pounds  of  superphosphate,  three  hundred  pounds 
dried  meat,  blood  or  fish,  and  four  hundred  pounds 
refuse  common  salt.  The  quantity  of  superphosphate 
and  nitrogenous  matter  may  be  doubled,  to  advantage, 
or  even  made  stronger,  as  grass  will  stand  almost  any 
amount  of  fertilizer.  The  common  salt,  used  as  an 
alterative  and  solvent,  will  be  found  to  have  a  decided 
influence  in  keeping  up  the  emerald  green  condition  so 
desirable  on  a  perfect  lawn.  Not  more  than  three 
bushels  to  the  acre  should  be  applied  in  a  season,  and 
then  best  during  a  rain — never  under  a  hot  sun. 

Old  lawns,  much  in  decay,  are  better  if  plowed  up, 
leveled  and  resown,  but  often  this  course  is  not  conven- 
ient, certainly  not  if  the  lawn  can  be  renovated  by  a  sys- 
tem taking  less  time.  In  that  case,  when  prompt  results 
are  desirable,  the  old  sod  should  be  well  combed  by  a 
harrow,  to  tear  out  the  dried  grass  and  easily  extracted 
dead  roots.  This  operation  also  breaks  the  eartH,  put- 
ting it  in  a  pulverized  condition  to  receive  seed,  which 
may  be  sown  broadcast,  which,  falling  between  the  living 
grass,  roots  into  the  friable  and  fresh  soil,  and  is  at  once 
in  position  to  germinate  and  occupy  the  space.  On 
many  lawns  cut  with  the  lawn  mower  there  appear  many 
pests — the  Creeping  Veronica  and  the  Mouse-Eared 
Ohickweed  being  prominent — which  crowd  out  desirable 
grasses  and  mar  the  appearance  of  the  sward.  Under 
such  circumstances  it  is  advised  to  break  up  the  parts 
affected  and  sow  with  seed  of  the  Sheep  Fescue,  which 
will  admit  of  such  close  cutting  as  to  destroy  all  of  the 
pestiferous  plants. 


INDEX. 


Amateurs'  garden 54,  55 

Analyses  of  manures 41 

April  calendar 189 

Asparagus 10 

Asparagus  beetle 58 

August  calendar 193 

Bean  fertilizer 32 

Beans  2,  3,  10, 15,  165 

Beets 52,  152 

Bermuda  grass 204 

Berry  baskets 15 

Blackberry  baskets 15,  43 

Bloomsdale  Swede 152 

Blue  grass 206,  209 

Bone  dust 31 

Bordeaux  mixture 68 

Buffalo  grass 203 

Cabbage  fungus 67 

Cabbage  insects 26,  62,  63 

Cabbage,  turnip-rooted 161 

Calendar,  monthly 185 

Capital 5 

Carrot 32  52,  158,  161 

Cauliflower.. 4 

Celery 113 

Census  report    1 

Central  district 3 

Chemical  manures 30.  31,  35,  38 

Chemistry  of  garden 30 

Chili  guano 39 

Classification  ot  weeds 83 

Clover 212 

Clover  fertilizer.   32 

Club  root 68 

Cold  frames 51,  84,  92 

Commercial  gardening 4 

Compost 14,  35,  37 

Costs 99,  132,  158 

Covering  seeds 42 

Crates 15 

Cross  fertilization 75 

Cucumber 2,  4.  10, 15,  32,  110,  165 

Cultivation .20,  21,  155,  160 

Cutworm  ." 60 

Damping  off 100 

December  calendar 197 

Desirable  varieties 183 

Destroying  weeds 83 

Dibble 53 

Disclaimer,  seedsmen's 79 

Diseases  of  vegetables 65 

Districts  of  vegetable  culture. . .    2 

Drainage 19 

Early  crops 7 

Egg  plant. 4,  52 


Egg  plants,  treatment  of . . 165 

Emulsion,  kerosene 64 

Evaporation 20 

Farmers 5 

Farm  expenses 5 

February  calendar 186 

Fermenting  lye 37 

Fertile  soils 19 

Fertilizers 1,  3,  35,  37,  38,  40 

Fish  manure 40 

Florida 3, 12 

Forcing  beds 71 

Foreign  weeds 82 

Foxtail  grass 206 

Freight  cars 168 

Fumigation 110 

Fungi 25,  130 

Garden  hoes 176 

Gardening 1,  4,  22,  23,  27,  28,  29 

Garden  plan 55 

Gardening  under  glass,  — 94,  96,  99 

Georgia 3 

Germination 44,  48,  50,  80 

Grafting 24 

Grama  grass 203 

Grass 198,  203 

Grass  plants  to  the  acre 210 

Green  fly 110 

Greenhouse r. 25 

Green  manures 14,  33,  201 

Growers  of  seed 76 

Growth  of  vegetables 25 

Guano 14,  38,  39 

Half  acre  garden 181 

Harvests  ng  roots 148, 157 

Heating 102 

Heredity  in  plants 69,  72 

Hessian  fly 26 

Hoes 176 

Hotbeds 61,  84,  88 

Implements 1,  14,  169 

Insecticides 57 

Insects 26,  57 

Intermediate  beds 51,  91 

Irrigation 202 

January  calendar 185 

July  calendar 192 

June  calendar 191 

Kale 2,10 

Kerosene  emulsion 64 

Kohl  rabi 161 

Labor 1,  101 

Late  crops 7 

Lawn 213 

Lettuce 45,  52,  103, 108 


214 


INDEX. 


215 


Lime 31 

Location 7, 17 

Lupine 36 

Lye,  fermenting 37 

Manures 35,  36,  87 

Manures,  green 33 

Mangel  wurzels 154 

March  calendar 187 

Market  gardening 2,  4,  94 

May  calendar 190 

Melons 10 

Mixed  grasses 207 

Moisture 44 

Monthly  calendar 185 

Mulching 53 

Mushroom  culture 135,  138,  139 

New  England  district 2 

Nitrate  of  soda 31 

Nitrogen 30,  31,  40 

Nitrogenous  plants 20 

Norfolk  district 2 

Novelties 77 

November  calendar 196 

Oak 43 

October  calendar 196 

Oily  seed 46 

Onion  fly 64 

Onions 2,  45,125,  132 

Oranges 16 

Orchard  grass 206 

Over  production 12 

Packages 165 

Packing  vegetables 164 

Parsnip 52,  162 

Pasture  field 208 

Pea  fungus 68 

Peas 3,  10,  15,  16,  45,  68 

Pepper 52 

Perennial  rye  grass 206 

Perishable  vegetables 7, 103 

Peruvian  guano 39 

Philadelphia  district 3 

Phosphoric  plants 30 

Phosphate  of  lime 31 

Plant  pit 93 

Pollen 75 

Potash 30,  31,  32,  39 

Potato  bug 60 

Potato  fertilizer 32 

Potato  plants 30 

Potato  vine  fungus 67 

Potatoes 2,  3,  10,  12,  16,  32 

Products 10,  110 

Profit  in  gardening 1,  6 

Profits 6,9 

Pul  vei-ization 20 

Quality 168 

Quantity  of  seed 42,  181 

Quotations 168 

Radishes 2,  45,  52 

Raspberries 15 

Red  top  grass 205,  208 

Rental , 7 

Roots  for  stock  feeding 140 

Roots,  saving 147 

Rotation 54 

Rye 34,  201 


Rye  grass 206 

Salt 128 

Saving  roots 147 

Saving  seed 74 

Science  of  gardening 22 

Seasons    3,  9,  11,  43 

Seed  beds 51 

Seed  drills 15, 128,  173 

Seed  testing 46 

Seeds 1,  41,  42,  46,  70,  73,  76,  134 

Seeds  in  a  pound 209 

Seedsmen's  responsibilities. ..77,  79 

September  calendar 194 

Sexes  in  plants 69 

Sheep  farming 200 

Shipments 168 

Shipping  vegetables 164 

Soil 8,  17,  18,  19,  103,  107,  112 

Sorting  vegetables 166 

South  Atlanta  district 3 

Sowing  seeds 41,  87,  90, 144 

Spawn 135 

Spinach 2,  10,  45 

Squash 10 

Squash  bug 60 

Stable  manure 13, 14,  35,  g6 

Starchy  seed 46 

Storing 120 

Strawberries 10,  12, 15 

Succession    54,  55 

Sugar  beets 154 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 31 

Sun  houses Ill 

Sunlight 18 

Superphosphate 13,  14,  31,  38 

Systems  11 

Tanks 118 

Testing  seeds 46,  47 

Texas  blue  grass 204 

Thinning  out 56,  146 

Tillage 17,  20,  21 

Timothy 204,  204 

Tomatoes 2,3,4,  10,52,  168 

Transplanting .51,  89,  111 

Transportation .7,  15 

Trowel 56 

Truck  farming 2 

Turnip 52,  142,  148,  150 

Turnip  fertilizer 33 

Turnip  fly 64 

Value  of  products 2 

Variability 71 

Varieties  of  beet 153 

Varieties  of  carrot 159 

Vai-ieties  of  onion 126 

Vegetables 3,  4.  7,  65,  164 

Ventilation 102,  105,  165 

Vitality 45,  47,  50,  134 

Watering 100 

Watermelon 3 

Weeds 82,  83 

Wheat  fertilizer 32 

White  grub 59 

Winter  vegetables 4 

Wire  worm 59 

Wood  ashes 31,  39 

Wool 201 


A  Valuable  Periodical  for  everybody  in  City,  Village,  and  Country. 


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2  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Mushrooms.    How  to  Grow  Them. 

For  home  use  fresh  Mushrooms  are  a  delicious,  highly  nutritious  and 
wholesome  delicacy;  and  for  market  they  are  less  bulky  than  eggs, 
and,  when  properly  handled,  no  crop  is  more  remunerative.  Anyone 
who  has  an  ordinary  house  cellar,  woodshed,  or  barn  can  grow  Mush- 
rooms. This  is  the  most  practical  work  on  the  subject  ever  written, 
and  the  only  book  on  growing  Mushrooms  ever  published  in  America. 
The  whole  subject  is  treated  in  detail,  minutely  and  plainly,  as  only  a 
practical  man,  actively  engaged  in  Mushroom  growing,  can  handle* it. 
The  author  describes  how  he  himself  grows  Mushrooms,  and  how  they 
are  grown  for  profit  by  the  leading  market  gardeners,  and  for  home 
use  by  the  most  successful  private  growers.  The  book  is  amply  and 
pointedly  illustrated,  with  engravings  drawn  from  nature  expressly 
for  this  work.  By  Wm.  Falconer.  Is  nicely  printed  and  bound  in 
cloth.  Price,  post-paid 1.50 

Allen's  New  American  Farm  Book. 

The  very  best  work  on  the  subject ;  comprising  all  that  can  be  con- 
densed into  an  available  volume.  Originally  by  Richard  L.  Allen. 
Reviued  and  greatly  enlarged  by  Lewis  F.  Allen.  Cloth,  12mo...  2.50 

Henderson's  Gardening  for  Profit. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  New  edition.  Entirely  rewritten  and  greatly 
enlarged.  The  standard  work  on  Market  and  Family  Gardening. 
The  successful  experience  of  the  author  for  more  than  thirly  years, 
and  his  willingness  to  tell,  as  he  does  in  this  work,  the  secret  of  his 
success  for  the  benefit  of  others,  enables  him  to  give  most  valuable 
information.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated.  Cloth,  12nio.--  2.00 

Fuller's  Practical  Forestry. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  Planting,  and  Cultivation,  with  a  de- 
scription and  the  botanical  and  proper^names  of  all  the  indigenous 
trees  of  the  United  States,  both  Evergreen  and  Deciduous,  with  Notes 
on  a  large  number  of  the  most  valuable  Exotic  Species.  By  Andrew 
S.  FuUer,  author  of  "Grape  Culturist,"  "Small  Fruit  Culturist,"  etc. 

1.5u 

The  Dairyman's  Manual. 

By  Henry  Stewart,  author  of  "The  Shepherd's  Manual,"  "Irriga- 
tion," etc.  A  useful  and  practical  work  by  a  writer  who  is  well 
known  as  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  subject  of  which  he  writes. 
Cloth,  12mo 2.00 

Truck  Farming  at  the  South. 

A  work  giving  the  experience  of  a  successful  grower  of  vegetables  or 
"  grain  truck"  for  Northern  markets.  Essential  to  any  one  who  con- 
templates entering  this  promising  field  of  Agriculture.  By  A.  Oemler, 
Of  Georgia.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Harris  on  the  Pig. 

New  edition.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  author.  The  points  of  the 
various  English  and  American  breeds  are  thoroughly  discussed,  and 
ihe  great  advantage  of  using  thoroughbred  males  clearly  shown.  The 
work  is  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer  who  keeps  but  few  pigs,  and  to 
ihe  breeder  on  an  extensive  scale.  By  Joseph  Harris.  Illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Jones's  Peanut  Plant— Its  Cultivation  and  TJsss. 

A  practical  Book,  instructing  the  beginner  how  to  raise  goc''  crops 
of  Peanuts.  By  B.  W.  Jones,  Surry  Co.,  Va.  Paper  Cover, .50 


STANDARD    BOOKS.  3 

Barry's  Fruit  Garden. 

By  P.  Barry.  A  standard  work  on  fruit  and  fruit-trees  ;  the  author 
having  had  over  tMky  years'  practical  experience  at  the  head  of  one 
of  the  largest  nurslmes  in  this  country.  New  edition,  revised  up  to 
date.  Invaluable  to  all  fruit-growers.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  2.CO 

The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  An 
eminently  practical  and  useful  work.  Describing  the  process  of  hy- 
biidizing  and  crossing  species  and  varieties,  and  also  the  many  differ- 
ent modes  by  which  cultivated  plants  may  be  propagated  and  multi- 
plied. Cloth,  12mo--. 1.50 

St:wart's  Shepherd's  Manual. 

A  Valuable  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Sheep,  for  American  farmers  and 
sheep  growers.  It  is  so  plain  that  a  farmer,  or  a  farmer's  son,  who 
has  never  kept  a  sheep,  may  learn  from  its  pages  how  to  manage  a 
flock  successfully,  and  yet  so  complete  that  even  the  experienced 
shepherd  may  gather  many  suggestions  from  it.  The  results  of  per- 
sonal experience  of  some  years  with  the  characters  of  the  various  mod- 
ern breeds  of  sheep,  and  the  sheep-raising  capabilities  of  many  portions 
of  our  extensive  territory  and  that  of  Canada—  and  the  careful  study  of 
the  diseases  to  which  our  sheep  are  chiefly  subject,  with  those  by  which 
they  may  eventually  be  afflicted  through  unforeseen  accidents— as  well 
as  the  methods  of  management  called  for  under  our  circumstances,  are 
here  gathered.  By  Henry  Stewart.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12m o 1.50 

Allen's  American  Cattle. 

Their  History,  Breeding,  and  Management.  By  Lewis  F.  Allen.  This 
Book  will  be  considered  indispensable  by  every  breeder  of  live  stock. 
The  large  experience  of  the  author  in  improving  the  character  of 
American  herds  adds  to  the  weight  of  his  observations,  and  hus 
enabled  him,  to  produce  a  work  which  will  at  once  make  good  his 
claims  as  a  standard  authority  on  the  subject.  New  and  revised 
edition.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo , 250 

Fuller's  Srrape  Culturist. 

By.  A.  S.  Fuller.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works  on  the  culture 
of  the  hardy  grapes,  with  full  directions  for  all  departments  of  propa- 
gation, culture,  etc.,  with  150  excellent  engravings,  illustrating  plant- 
ing, training,  grafting,  etc.  Cloth,  I2mo 1.50 

White's  Cranberry  Culture. 

CONTENTS  :— Natural  History.— History  of  Cultivation.— Choice  of 
Location. — Preparing  the  Ground. — Plantingthe  Vines. — Management 
of  Meadows. — Flooding — Enemies  and  Difficulties  Overcome.— Pick- 
ing.— Keeping. — Profit  and  Loss. — Letters  from  Practical  Growers. — 
Insects  Injurious  to  the  Cranberry.  By  Joseph  J.  White.  A  practi- 
cal grower.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  New  and  revised  edition.  1.25 

Herbert's  Hints  to  Horse-Keepers. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  works  on  the  Horse  in  this 
country.  A  Complete  Manual  for  Horsemen,  embracing :  How  to 
Breed  a  Horse ;  How  to  Buy  a  Horse ;  Hov/  to  Break  a  Horse  ;  How 
to  Use  a  Horse  ;  How  to  Feed  a  Horse ;  How  to  Physic  a  Horse  (Allo- 
pathy or  Homoepathy) ;  How  to  Groom  a  Horse ;  How  to  Drive  a 
Horse ,-  How  to  Kide  a  Horse,  etc.  By  the  late  Henry  William  Her- 
bert (Frank  Forester).  Beautifully  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo...  1.75 


4  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Henderson's  Practical  Floriculture. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  A  guide  to  the  successful  propagation  and 
cultivation  of  florists'  plants.  The  work  is  n^kone  for  Uorists  and 
gardeners  only,  but  the  amateur's  wants  are  colttantly  kept  in  mind, 
and  we  have  a  very  complete  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  flowers 
under  glass,  or  in  the  open  air,  suited  to  those  who  grow  flowers  for 
pleasure  as  well  as  those  who  make  them  a  matter  of  trade.  The 
work  is  characterized  by  the  same  radical  common  sense  that  marked 
the  author's  "  Gardening  for  Profit,"  and  it  holds  a  high  place  in  the 
estimation  of  lovers  of  agriculture.  Beautifully  illustrated.  New  and 
enlarged  edition.  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Harris's  Talks  on  Manures. 

By  Joseph  Harris,  M.  S.,  author  of  "  Walks  and  Talks  on  the  Farm," 
"Harrison  the  Pig."  etc.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  author.  A 
series  of  familiar  and  practical  talks  between  the  author  and  the  dea- 
con, the  doctor,  and  other  neighbors,  on  the  whole  subject  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  ;  including  a  chapter  specially  written  for  it  by  Sir  John 
Benuet  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  England.  Cloth,  12mo 1.75 

taring's  Draining  for  Profit  and  Draining  for  Health. 

This  book  is  a  very  complete  -and  practical  treatise,  the  directions  in 
which  are  plain,  and  easily  followed.  The  subject  of  thorough  farm 
drainage  is  discussed  in  nil  its  bearings,  and  also  that  more  extensive 
land  drainage  by  which  the  sanitary  condition  of  any  district  may  be 
greatly  improved,  even  to  the  banishment  of  fever  and  ague,  typhoid 
and  malarious  fever.  By  Ge<>.  E.  Waring,  Jr  Illustrated,  Cloth  12mo. 

The  Practical  Rabbit-Keeper. 

By  Cuniculus.  Illustrated.  A  comprehensive  work  on  keeping  and 
raising  Rabbits  for  pleasure  as  well  as  for  profit.  The  book  is  abv.n 
dantly  illustrated  with  all  the  various  Courts,  Warrens,  Hutches, 
Fencing,  etc.,  and  also  with  excellent  portraits  of  the  most  important 
species  of  rabbits  throughout  the  world.  12oio 1.50 

(tuinby's  New  Bee-Keeping. 

The  Mysteries  of  Bee-keeping  Explained.  Combining  the  results  of 
Fifty  Years'  Experience,  with  the  latest  discoveries  and  inventions, 
and  presenting  the  most  approved  methods,  forming  a  complete  work. 
Cloth,  13mo 1-50 

Profits  in  Poultry. 

Useful  and  Ornamental  Breeds  and  their  Profitable  Management.  This 
excellent  work  contains  the  combined  experience  of  a  number  of  prac- 
tical men  in  all  departments  of  poultry  raising.  It  is  profusely  illus- 
trated and  forms  an  unique  and  important  addition  to  our  poultry  lit- 
erature. Cloth,  12tno --.-  1.00 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings. 

Two  Hundred  and  Fifty-seven  Illustrations.  A  most  Valuable  Work, 
full  of  Ideas,  Hints,  Suggestions,  Plans,  etc.,  for  the  Construction  of 
Barns  and  Outbuildings,  by  Practical  writers.  Chapters  are  devoted, 
among  other  subjects^  to  the  Economic  Erection  and  Use  of  Barns. 
Grain  Barns,  House  Barns,  Cattle  Bams,  Sheep  Barns,  Corn  Houses, 
Smoke  Houses,  Ice  Houses,  Pig  Pens,  Granaries,  etc.  There  are  like- 
wise chapters  upon  Bird  Houses,  Dog  Houses,  Tool  Sheds,  Ventila- 
tors, Roofs  and  Roofing,  Doors  and  Fastenings,  Work  Shops,  Poultry 
Houses,  Manure  Sheds,  Barn  Yards,  Root  Pits,  etc.  Recently  pub- 
lished. Cloth,  12mo.. - I'W 


STANDARD    BCXOKS.  5 

Parsons  on  the  Rose. 

By  Samuel  B.  Parsons.  A  treatise  on  the  propagation,  culture,  and 
history  of  the  rose.  New  and  revised  edition.  In  his  work  upon  the 
rose,  Mr.  Parsons  has  gathered  up  the  curious  legends  concerning 
the  flower,  and  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  esteem  in  which  it  was  held  in 
former  times.  A  simple  garden  classilication  has  been  adopted,  and 
the  leading  varieties  under  each  class  enumerated  and  briefly 
described.  The  chapters  on  multiplication,  cultivation,  and  training 
are  very  full,  and  the  work  is  altogether  one  of  the  most  complete 
before  the  public.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo ..1.00 

Keinrich's  Window  Flower  Garden. 

The  author  is  a  practical  florist,  and  this  enterprising  volume  em- 
bodies his  personal  experiences  in  Window  Gardening  during  a  long 
period.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  By  Julius  J.  Heinrich.  Fully 
Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo 75 

Liautard's  Chart  of  the  Age  of  the  Domestic  Animals. 

Adopted  by  the  United  States  Army.  Enables  one  to  accurately  de- 
termine the  age  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  and  pigs .50 

Pedder's  Land  Measurer  for  Farmers. 

A  convenient  Pocket  Companion,  showing  at  once  the  contents  of 
any  piece  of  land,  when  its  length  and  width  are  known,  up  to  1,500 
f«et  either  way.  with  various  other  useful  farm  tables.  Cloth,  18mo; 

.60 

How  to  Plant  and  What  to  Do  with  the  Crops. 

With  other  valuable  hints  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard.  By 
Mark  W.  Johnson.  Illustrated.  CONTENTS  :  Times  for  Sowing  Seeds: 
Covering  Seeds ;  Field  Crops ;  Garden  or  Vegetable  Seeds,  Sweet 
Herbs,  etc.;  Tree  Seeds  ;  Flower  Seeds  ;  Fruit  Trees ;  Distances  Apart 
for  Fruit  Trees  and  Shrubs  ;  Profitable  Farming ;  Green  or  Manuring 
Crops  ;  Root  Crops ;  Forage  Plants  ;  What  to  do  with  the  Crops  ;  The 
Rotation  of  Crops;  Varieties;  Paper  Covers,  post-paid. f»0 

Your  Plants. 

Plain  and  Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment  of  Tender  and  Hardy 
Plants  in  the  House  and  in  the  Garden.  By  James  Sheehan.  The 
above  title  well  describes  the  character  of  the  work — "  Plain  and  Prac- 
tical." The  author,  a  commercial  florist  and  gardener,  has  endeavored, 
in  this  work,  to  answer  the  many  questions  asked  by  his  customers,  as 
to  the  proper  treatment  of  plants.  The  book  shows  all  through  that 
its  author  is  a  practical  man,  and  he  writes  as  one  with  a  large  store 
of  experience.  The  work  better  meets  the  wants  of  the  amateur  who 
grows  a  few  plants  in  the  window,  or  has  a  small  flower  Garden,  than 
a  larger  treatise  intended  for  those  who  cultivate  plants  upon  a  more 
extended -scale.  Price,  post-paid,  paper  covers.. 40 

Husmann's  American  Grape-Growing  and  Wine-Making. 

By  George  Husmann  of  Talcoa  vineyards,  Napa,  California.  New  and 
enlarged  edition.  With  contributions  from  well-known  grape-growers, 
giving  a  wide  range  of  experience.  The  author  of  this  book  is  a 
recognized  authority  on  the  subject.  Cloth,  12mo... 1.50 

The  Scientific  Angler. 

A  general  and  instructive  work  on  Artistic  Angling,  by  the  late  David 
Foster.  Complied  by  his  Sons.  With  an  Introductory  Chapter  and 
Copious  Foot  Notes,' by  William  C.  Harris,  Editor  of  the  "American 
Angler."  Cloth,  l&uo 1.50 


6  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Keeping  One  Cow. 

A  collection  of  Prize  Essays,  and  selections  from  a  number  of  other 
Essays,  with  editorial  notes,  suggestions,  etc.  This  book  gives  the 
latest  information,  and  in  a  clear  and  condensed  form,  upon  the  man- 
agement of  a  single  Milch  Cow.  Illustrated  with  full-page  engrav- 
ings of  the  most  famous  dairy  cows.  .Recently  published.  Cloth, 
12mo. - - 1.00 

Law's  Veterinary  Adviser 

A  Guide  to  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  This  is  one  of  the  best  works  on  this  subject,  and  is  especi- 
ally designed  to  supply  the  need  of  the  busy  American  Farmer,  who 
can  rarely  avail  himself  of  the  advice  of  a  Scientific  Veterinarian.  It 
is  brought  up  to  date  and  treats  of  the  Prevention  of  Disease,  as  well 
as  of  the  Remedies.  By  Prof.  Jas.  Law.  Cloth,  Crown  8vo 3.00 

Guenon's  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Bovine  Species  in  General.  An  entirely  new  trans- 
lation of  the  last  edition  of  this  popular  and  instructive  bock.  By 
Thos.  J.  Hand,  Secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club.  With 
over  100  Illustrations,  especially  engraved  for  this  work.  Cloth,  12mo. 

The  Cider  Maker's  Handbook, 

A  complete  guide  for  making  and  keeping  pure  cider.  By  J.  M.  Trow- 
bridge.  Fully  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo... 1.00 

Long's  Ornamental  Gardening  for  Americans. 

A  treatise  on  Beautifying  Homes,  Rural  Districts,  and  Cemeteries.  A 
plain  and  practical  work  at  a  moderate  price,  with  numerous  illus- 
trations, and  instructions  so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily  followed. 
By  Elias  A.  Long.  Landscape  Architect.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo. 

The  Dogs  of  Great  Britain,  America  and  Other  Countries. 

New,  enlarged  and  revised  edition.  Their  breeding,  training  and 
management,  is  health  and  disease  ;  comprising  all  the  es&ential  parts 
of  the  two  standard  works  on  the  dog,  by  "  Stonehenge,"  thereby  fur- 
nishing for  $2  what  once  cost  $11.25.  Contains  Lists  of  all  Premiums 
given  at  the  last  Dog  Shows.  It  Describes  the  Best  Game  and  Hunt- 
ing Grounds  in  America.  -Contains  over  One  Hundred  Beautiful  En- 
gravings, embracing  most  noted  Dogs  in  both  Continents,  making  to- 
gether, with  Chapters  by  American  Writers,  the  most  Complete  Dog 
Book  ever  published.  Cloth,  12mo 2.00 

Stewart's  Feeding  Animals. 

By  Elliot  W.  Stewart.  A  new  and  valuable  practical  work  upon  the 
laws  of  animal  growth,  specially  applied  to  the  rearing  and  feeding 
horses,  cattle,  diary  cows,  sheep  and  swine.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo. 

2.00 

How  to  Co-operate. 

A  Manual  for  Co-operators.  By  Herbert  Myrick.  This  book  describes 
the  how  rather  than  the  wherefore  of  co-operation.  In  other  words  it 
tells  how  to  manage  a  co-operative  store,  farm  or  factory,  and  co-op- 
erative dairying,  banking  and  fire  insurance,  and  co-operative  farmers' 
and  women's  exchanges  for  both  buying  and  selling.  The  directions 
given  are  based  on  the  actual  experience  of  successful  co-operative  en- 
terprises in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  character  and  useful- 
ness of  the  book  commend  it  to  the  attention  of  all  men  and  women 
who  desire  to  bitter  their  condition.  12mo.  Cloth 1.50 


STANDARD    BOOKS.  7 

Hatty's  Practical  Taxidermy  and  Home  Decoration. 

By  Joseph  H.  Batty,  taxidermist  for  the  government  surveys  and 
many  colleges  and  museums  in  the  United  States.  An  entirely  new 
and  complete  as  well  as  authentic  work  on  taxidermy — giving  in 
detail  full  directions  for  collecting  and  mounting  animals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, fish,  insects,  and  general  objects  of  natural  history.  125  illus- 
trations. Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Stewart's  Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Garden,  and  Orchard. 

New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  This  work  is  offered  to  those  American 
Farmers,  and  other  cultivators  of  the  soil,  who  from  painful  expe- 
rience can  readily  appreciate  the  losses  which  result  from  the  scarcity 
of  water  at  critical  periods.  By  Henry  Stewart.  Fully  illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow. 

New  Edition,  entirely  rewritten.  A  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  Compo- 
sition, Structure,  and  Life  of  the  Plant.  Revised  Edition.  This  book 
is  a  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  agricultural  plants,  their  composition, 
their  structure,  and  modes  of  development  and  growth  ;  of  the  com- 
plex organization  of  plants,  and  the  use  of  the  parts  ;  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  the  food  of  plants  obtained  both  from  the  air  and  the 
soil.  The  book  is  an  invaluable  one  to  all  real  students  of  agricul- 
ture. With  numerous  illustrations  and  tables  of  analysis.  By  Prof. 
Samuel  W.  Johnson,  of  Yale  College.  Cloth,  12mo 2.00 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed. 

A  treatise  on  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Soil,  as  related  in  the  Nutrition 
of  Agricultural  Plants.  The  volume — the  companion  and  complement 
to  "  How  Crops  Grow," — has  been  welcomed  by  those  who  appreciate 
scientific  aspects  of  agriculture.  Illustrated.  By  Prof.  Samuel  W. 
Johnson.  Cloth,  12mo 2.00 

Warington's  Chemistry  of  the  Farm. 

Treating  with  the  utmost  clearness  and  conciseness,  and  in  the  most 
popular  manner  possible,  of  the  relations  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture, 
and  providing  a  welcome  manual  for  those,  who,  while  not  having 
time  to  systematically  study  Chemistry,  will  gladly  have  such  an  idea 
as  this  gives  them  of  its  relation  to  operations  on  the  farm.  By  R. 
Warington,  F.  C.  S.  Cloth,  12mo 1.00 

French's  Farm  Drainage. 

The  Principles,  Process,  and  Effects  of  Draining  Land,  with  Stones, 
Wood,  Ditch-plows,  Open  Ditches,  and  especially  with  Ties ;  includ- 
ing Tables  of  Rainfall,  Evaporation,  Filteration,  Excavation,  Capacity 
of  Pipes,  cost  and  number  to  the  acre.  By  Judge  French,  of  New 
Hampshire.  Cloth,  12mo. 1.50 

Hunter  and  Trapper. 

The  best  modes  of  Hunting  and  Trapping  are  fully  explained,  and 
Foxes,  Deer,  Bears,  etc.,  fall  into  his  traps  readily  by  following  his 
directions.  By  Halsey  Thrasher,  an  old  and  experienced  sportsman. 
Cloth,  12mo . 75 

The  American  Merino.    For  Wool  or  for  Mutton. 

A  practical  and  most  valuable  work  on  the  selection,  care,  breeding 
and  diseases  of  the  Merino  sheep,  in  all  sections  of  the  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  full  and  exhaustive  treatise  upon  this  one  breed  of 
ihee.p.  By  Stephen  Powers.  Cloth,  12mo l.» 


8  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Armatage's  Every  Man  His  Own  Horse  Doctor. 

By  Prof.  George  Armatage,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S.  A  valuable  and  compre- 
hensive guide  for  both  the  professional  and  general  reader  with  the 
fullest  and  latest  information  regarding  all  diseases,  local  injuries, 
lameness,  operations,  poisons,  the  dispensatory,  etc  ,  etc.,  with  prac-ti 
cal  anatomical  and  surgical  Illustrations.  New  Edition.  Together 
with  Elaine's  "Veterinary  Art,"  and  numerous  recipes.  One  large 
8vo.  volume,  830  pages,  half  morocco.. 7.50 

Dadd's  Modern  Horse  Doctor, 

Containing  Practical  Observations  on  the  Causes,  Nature,  and  Treat- 
ment of  Diseases  and  Lameness  of  Horses — embracing  recent  and  im- 
proved Methods,  according  to  an  enlightened  system  of  Veterinary 
Practice,  for  Preservation  and  Restoration  of  Health.  Illustrated. 
By  Geo.  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.  V.  S.,  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

The  Family  Horse, 

Its  Stabling,  Care,  and  Feeding.  By  Geo.  A.  Martin.  A  Practical 
Manual,  full  of  the  most  useful  information.  Illustrated.  Cloth, 
12mo 1.00 

Sander's  Horse  Breeding. 

Being  the  general  principles  of  Heredity  applied  to  the  Business  of 
Breeding  Horses  and  the  Management  of  Stallions,  Brood  Mares  and 
Foals.  The  book  embraces  all  that  the  breeder  should  know  in  regard 
to  the  selection  of  stock,  management  of  the  stallion,  broodmare,  and 
foal,  and  treatment  of  diseases  peculiar  to  breeding  animals.  By  J. 
H.  Sanders.  12mo,  cloth. 2.00 

Coburn's  Swine  Husbandry. 

New,  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  The  Breeding,  Rearing  and 
Management  of  Swine,  and  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  their 
Diseases.  It  is  the  fullest  and  freshest  compendium  relating  to  Swine 
Breeding  yet  offered.  By  F.  D.  Coburn.  Cloth,  12mo 1.75 

Dadd's  American  Cattle  Doctor. 

By  George  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.,  Veterinary  Practitioner.  To  help  every 
man  to  be  his  own  cattle-doctor ;  giving  the  necessary  information 
for  preserving  the  health  and  curing  the  diseases  of  oxen,  cows,  sheep, 
and  swine,  with  a  great  variety  of  original  recipes,  and  valuable  infor- 
mation on  farm  and  dairy  management.  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Silos,  Ensilage,  and  Silage. 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  Ensilage  of  Fodder  Corn.  Containing  the 
most  recent  and  authentic  information  c^  this  important  subject,  by 
Manly  Miles,  M.D.,  F.R.M.S.  Illustrated.  Cloth  12mo 50 

Broom  Corn  and  Brooms. 

A  Treatise  on  Raising  Broom-Corn  and  Making  Brooms  on  a  small  or 
Large  Scale.  Illustrated.  12mo.  Cloth  cover 50 

American  Bird  Fancier. 

Or  how  to  breed,  rear,  and  care  for  Song  and  Domestic  Birds.  This 
valuable  and  important  little  work  for  all  who  are  interested  in  the 
keeping  of  Song  Birds,  has  been  revised  and  enlarged,  and  is  now  a 
complete  manual  upon  the  subject.  All  who  own  valuable  birds,  or 
wish  to  do  so,  will  find  the  new  Fancier  indispensable.  New,  revised 
and  enlarged  edition.  By  D.  J.  Browne,  and  Dr.  Fuller  Walker.  Illus- 
trated, paper  cover 50 


STANDARD    BOOKS,  9 

Annatage's  Every  Man  His  Own  Cattle  Doctor. 

The  Veterinary  Cyclopedia — Embracing  all  the  practical  information 
of  value  heretofore  published  on  the  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and 
Swine,  together  with  the  latest  and  best  information  regarding  all 
known  diseases  up  to  the  present  time.  Compiled  and  edited  by  that 
eminent  authority,  Prof.  George  Armatage,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S.  One 
large  octavo  volume,  894  pages,  with  upwards  of  350  practical  illus- 
trations, showing  forms  of  disease  and  treatment.  Half  morocco.  7.50 

Onions— How  to  Raise  them  Profitably. 

Being  the  Practical  Details,  from  Selection  of  Seed  and  Preparation 
of  Ground  to  Harvesting  and  Marketing  the  Crop,  given  very  plainly 
by  Seventeen  Practical  Onion  Growers  of  lone;  experience  residing  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  No  more  valuable  work  of  its  size 
•was  ever  issued.  Paper  cover,  8vo 20 

Tobacco  Culture— Full  Practical  Details. 

This  useful  and  valuable  work  contains  full  details  of  every  process 
from  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  the  Seed  and  Soil  to  the  Harvest- 
ing, Curing  and  Marketing  the  Crop,  with  illustrative  engravings  of 
the  operations.  The  Avork  was  prepared  by  Fourteen  Experienced 
Tobacco  Growers,  residing  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  also 
contains  notes  on  the  Tobacco  Worm,  with  illustrations,  8vo,._  ,25 

Hop  Culture. 

Plain  directions  given  by  ten  experienced  cultivators.  Revised,  en- 
larged and  edited  by  A.  S.  Fuller.  Forty  engravings 30 

Flax  Culture. 

A  very  valuable  work,  containing  full  directions,  from  selection  of 
ground  and  seed  to  preparation  and  marketing  of  crop,  as  given  by 
a  number  of  experienced  growers,  8vo 30 

Potato  Pests. 

No  Farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  this  little  book.  It  gives  the 
most  complete  account  of  the  Colorado  Beetle  anywhere  to  be  found, 
and  includes  all  the  latest  discoveries  as  to  the  habits  of  the  insect 
and  the  various  means  for  its  destruction.  It  is  well  illustrated,  and 
exhibits  in  a  map  the  spread  of  the  insect  since  it  left  its  native  home. 
ByProf.  C.  V.  Riley.  Paper  cover.... .50 

Home  Fishing  and  Home  Waters. 

By  Seth  Green.  The  Utilization  of  Farm  Streams  ;  Management  of 
Fish  in  the  Artificial  Pond :  Transportation  of  Eggs  and  Fry,  etc. 
Cloth,  L>mo .' - - 50 

Reed's  House  Plans  for  Everybody. 

By  S.  B.  Reed.  This  useful  volume  meets  the  wants  of  persons  of 
moderate  means,  and  gives  a  wide  range  of  design,  from  a  dwelling 
costing  $250  up  to  $8,000,  and  adapted  to  farm,  village  and  town  resi- 
dences. Nearly  ah"  of  these  plans  have  been  tested  by  practical  work- 
ings. One  feature  of  the  work  imparts  a  value  over  any  similar  pub- 
lication of  the  kind  that  we  have  seen.  It  gives  an  estimate  of  the 
quantity  of  every  article  used  in  the  construction,  and  the  cost  of  each 
article  at  the  time  the  building  was  erected  or  the  design  made.  Even 
if  prices  vary  from  time  to  time,  one  can,  from  these  data,  ascertain 
within  a  few  dollars  the  probable  cost  of  constructing  any  one  of  the 
buildings  here  presented.  Profusely  illustrated.  Cloth,  black  and 
gold,  12mo 1.50 


10  STANDARD    BOOKS. 

Gregory  on  Cabbages— How  to  Grow  Them. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cabbage  Culture,  giving  full  details  on  everv 
point,  including  Keeping  and  Marketing  the  Crop.  By  James  J.  H. 
Gregory.  Paper  cover,  12mo 3o 

Gregory  on  Carrots,  Mangold- Wurtzels,  etc. 

How  to  raise  them,  how  to  keep  them,  and  how  to  feed  them.  By 
J.  J.  H.  Gregory.  Paper  Cover,  12m  o 30 

Gregory  on  Onion  Raising. 

What  kinds  to  raise,  and  the  way  to  raise  them.  By  J.  J.  .H.  Gregory. 
Paper  cover,  12mo.. 30 

Gregory  on  Squashes. 

This  Treatise,  which  no  Farmer  or  Gardener  ought  to  be  without, 
tells  all  about  selecting  the  soil  for  squashes  ;  how  much  Manure  is 
necessary  ;  how  to  prepare  and  Plant ;  about  Hoeing  and  Cultivating  ; 
Setting  of  the  Fruit ;  Ripening,  Gathering,  Storing,  Care  during  Win- 
ter, etc.  By  J.  J.  H.  Gregory.  Paper  cover,  12mo .30 

Hog-Raising  and  Pork-Making. 

By  Rufus  Bacon  Martin.  The  hog  is  reared  for  the  money  that  is  in 
him,  and  he  represents  either  a  profit  or  loss  to  his  owner  according  to 
the  treatment  he  receives.  This  pamphlet  gives  the  personal  research 
and  experience  of  the  author,  contains  many  valuable  suggestions, 
and  answers  many  of  the  questions  that  arise  in  the  business  of  hog- 
raising.  Paper,  12mo.-- 40 

Fulton's  Peach  Culture. 

This  is  the  only  practical  guide  to  Peach  Culture  on  the  Delaware 
Peninsula,  and  is  the  best  work  upon  the  subject  of  peach  growing  for 
those  who  would  be  successful  in  that  culture  in  any  part  of  the 
country.  It  has  been  thoroughly  revised  and  a  large  portion  of  it  re- 
written, by  Hon.  J.  Alexander  Fulton,  the  author,  bringing  it  down  to 
date.  Cloth,  12mo 1.50 

Silk  Culture. 

A  Handbook  for  Silk-Growers.  By  Mrs.  C.  E.  Bamford.  CON- 
TENTS.—Chapter  I.  The  Mulberry.--!!.  Gathering  the  Leaves.— 
III.  The  Cocoonery.-~IV.  Eggs  of  the  Silk  Worm  Moth.— V.  Feed- 
ing the  Silk  Worms.— VI.  Moulting.— VII.  Spinning.— VIII.  The 
Cocoons.— IX.  The  Moths  of  the  Silk  Worm.— X.  Varieties  of  Silk 
Worms.— XI.  Diseases  of  the  Silk  Worm.— XII.  Reeling.— XIII. 
Chemistry  of  Silk. — XIV.  Miscellaneous.  Paper,  12mo.  Price,  post- 
paid-....  .... .-  .30 

Treats'  Injurious  Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden.  By 
Mrs.  Mary  Treat. 

An  original  investigator  who  has  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  both 
Plants  and  insects,  and  those  who  are  familiar  with  Darwin's  works 
are  aware  that  he  gives  her  credit  for  important  observation  and  dis- 
coveries. New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  With  an  Illustrated  Chapter 
on  Beneficial  Insects.  FuUy  illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo 2.00 

Fuller's  Small  Fruit  Culturist. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Rewritten,  enlarged,  and  brought  fully  up  to 
the  present  time.  The  book  covers  the  whole  ground  of  propagating 
small  fruits,  their  culture,  varieties,  packing  for  market,  etc.  It  is 
very  finely  and  thoroughly  illustrated,  and  makes  an  admirable  com- 
panion to  "The  Grape  Culturist,"  by  the  same  well  known  author. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


